A Short History of Astronomy by Arthur Berry (best novels for students .TXT) 📕
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8. Although the stars all appear to move across the sky (§ 5), and their rates of motion differ, yet the distance between any two stars remains unchanged, and they were consequently regarded as being attached to the celestial sphere. Moreover a little careful observation would have shown that the motions of the stars in different parts of the sky, though at first sight very different, were just such as would have been produced by the celestial sphere—with the stars attached to it—turning about an axis passing through the centre and through a point in the northern sky close to the familiar pole-star. This point is called the pole. As, however, a straight line drawn through the centre of a sphere meets it in two points, the axis of the celestial sphere meets it again in a second point, opposite the first, lying in a part of the celestial sphere which is permanently below the horizon. This second point is also called a pole; and if the two poles have to be distinguished, the one mentioned first is called the north pole, and the other the south pole. The direction of the rotation of the celestial sphere about its axis is such that stars near the north pole are seen to move round it in circles in the direction opposite to that in which the hands of a clock move; the motion is uniform, and a complete revolution is performed in four minutes less than twenty-four hours; so that the position of any star in the sky at twelve o’clock to-night is the same as its position at four minutes to twelve to-morrow night.
The moon, like the stars, shares this motion of the celestial sphere and so also does the sun, though this is more difficult to recognise owing to the fact that the sun and stars are not seen together.
As other motions of the celestial bodies have to be dealt with, the general motion just described may be conveniently referred to as the daily motion or daily rotation of the celestial sphere.
9. A further study of the daily motion would lead to the recognition of certain important circles of the celestial sphere.
Each star describes in its daily motion a circle, the size of which depends on its distance from the poles. Fig. 2 shews the paths described by a number of stars near the pole, recorded photographically, during part of a night. The pole-star describes so small a circle that its motion can only with difficulty be detected with the naked eye, stars a little farther off the pole describe larger circles, and so on, until we come to stars half-way between the two poles, which describe the largest circle which can be drawn on the celestial sphere. The circle on which these stars lie and which is described by any one of them daily is called the equator. By looking at a diagram such as fig. 3, or, better still, by looking at an actual globe, it can easily be seen that half the equator (E Q W) lies above and half (the dotted part, W R E) below the horizon, and that in consequence a star, such as s, lying on the equator, is in its daily motion as long a time above the horizon as below. If a star, such as S, lies on the north side of the equator, i.e. on the side on which the north pole P lies, more than half of its daily path lies above the horizon and less than half (as shewn by the dotted line) lies below; and if a star is near enough to the north pole (more precisely, if it is nearer to the north pole than the nearest point, K, of the horizon), as σ, it never sets, but remains continually above the horizon. Such a star is called a (northern) circumpolar star. On the other hand, less than half of the daily path of a star on the south side of the equator, as S′, is above the horizon, and a star, such as σ′, the distance of which from the north pole is greater than the distance of the farthest point, H, of the horizon, or which is nearer than H to the south pole, remains continually below the horizon.
To face p. 8.
10. A slight familiarity with the stars is enough to shew any one that the same stars are not always visible at the same time of night. Rather more careful observation, carried out for a considerable time, is necessary in order to see that the aspect of the sky changes in a regular way from night to night, and that after the lapse of a year the same stars become again visible at the same time. The explanation of these changes as due to the motion of the sun on the celestial sphere is more difficult, and the unknown discoverer of this fact certainly made one of the most important steps in early astronomy.
If an observer notices soon after sunset a star somewhere in the west, and looks for it again a few evenings later at about the same time, he finds it lower down and nearer to the sun; a few evenings later still it is invisible, while its place has now been taken by some other star which was at first farther east in the sky. This star can in turn be observed to approach the sun evening by evening. Or if the stars visible after sunset low down in the east are noticed a few days later, they are found to be higher up in the sky, and their place is taken by other stars at first too low down to be seen. Such observations of stars rising or setting about sunrise or sunset shewed to early observers that the stars were gradually changing their position with respect to the sun, or that the sun was changing its position with respect to the stars.
The changes just described, coupled with the fact that the stars do not change their positions with respect to one another, shew that the stars as a whole perform their daily revolution rather more rapidly than the sun, and at such a rate that they gain on it one complete revolution in the course of the year. This can be expressed otherwise in the form that the stars are all moving westward on the celestial sphere, relatively to the sun, so that stars on the east are continually approaching and those on the west continually receding from the sun. But, again, the same facts can be expressed with equal accuracy and greater simplicity if we regard the stars as fixed on the celestial sphere, and the sun as moving on it from west to east among them (that is, in the direction opposite to that of the daily motion), and at such a rate as to complete a circuit of the celestial sphere and to return to the same position after a year.
This annual motion of the sun is, however, readily seen not to be merely a motion from west to east, for if so the sun would always rise and set at the same points of the horizon, as a star does, and its midday height in the sky and the time from sunrise to sunset would always be the same. We have already seen that if a star lies on the equator half of its daily path is above the horizon, if the star is north of the equator more than half, and if south of the equator less than half; and what is true of a star is true for the same reason of any body sharing the daily motion of the celestial sphere. During the summer months therefore (March to September), when the day is longer than the night, and more than half of the sun’s daily path is above the horizon, the sun must be north of the equator, and during the winter months (September to March) the sun must be south of the equator. The change in the sun’s distance from the pole is also evident from the fact that in the winter months the sun is on the whole lower down in the sky than in summer, and that in particular its midday height is less.
11. The sun’s path on the celestial sphere is therefore oblique to the equator, lying partly on one side of it and partly on the other. A good deal of careful observation of the kind we have been describing must, however, have been necessary before it was ascertained that the sun’s annual path on the celestial sphere (see fig. 4) is a great circle (that is, a circle having its centre at the centre of the sphere). This great circle is now called the ecliptic (because eclipses take place only when the moon is in or near it), and the angle at which it cuts the equator is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. The Chinese claim to have measured the obliquity in 1100 B.C., and to have found the remarkably accurate value 23° 52′ (cf. chapter II., § 35). The truth of this statement may reasonably be doubted, but on the other hand the statement of some late Greek writers that either Pythagoras or Anaximander (6th century B.C.) was the first to discover the obliquity of the ecliptic is almost certainly wrong. It must have been known with reasonable accuracy to both Chaldaeans and Egyptians long before.
When the sun crosses the equator the day is equal to the night, and the times when this occurs are consequently known as the equinoxes, the vernal equinox occurring when the sun crosses the equator from south to north (about March 21st), and the autumnal equinox when it crosses back (about September 23rd). The points on the celestial sphere where the sun crosses the equator (A, C in fig. 4), i.e. where ecliptic and equator cross one another, are called the equinoctial points, occasionally also the equinoxes.
After the vernal equinox the sun in its path along the ecliptic recedes from the equator towards the north, until it reaches, about three months afterwards, its greatest distance from the equator, and then approaches the equator again. The time when the sun is at its greatest distance from the equator on the north side is called the summer solstice, because then the northward motion of the sun is arrested and it temporarily appears to stand still. Similarly the sun is at its greatest distance from the equator towards the south at the winter solstice. The points on the ecliptic (B, D in fig. 4) where the sun is at the solstices are called the solstitial points, and are half-way between the equinoctial points.
12. The earliest observers probably noticed particular groups of stars remarkable for their form or for the presence of bright stars among them, and occupied their fancy by tracing resemblances between them and familiar objects, etc. We have thus at a very early period a rough attempt at dividing the stars into groups called constellations and at naming the latter.
In some cases the stars regarded as belonging to a constellation form a well-marked group on the sky, sufficiently separated from other stars to be conveniently classed together, although the resemblance which the group bears to the object after
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