Relativity - The Special and General Theory by Albert Einstein (early reader books txt) 📕

Minkowski found that the Lorentz transformations satisfy the following simple conditions. Let us consider two neighbouring events, the relative position of which in the fourdimensional continuum is given with respect to a Galileian reference-body K by the space coordinate differences dx, dy, dz and the time-difference dt. With reference to a second Galileian system we shall suppose that the corresponding differences for these two events are dx1, dy1, dz1, dt1. Then these magnitudes always fulfil the condition*

dx2 + dy2 + dz2 - c^2dt2 = dx1 2 + dy1 2 + dz1 2 - c^2dt1 2.

The validity of the Lorentz transformation follows from this condition. We can express this as follows: The magnitude

ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 - c^2dt2,

which belongs to two adjacent points of the fourdimensional space-time continuum, has the same value for all selected (Galileian) reference-bodies. If we replace x, y, z, sq. rt. -I . ct , by x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4], we also obtaill the result that

ds2 = dx[1]^2 + dx[2]^2 + dx[3]^2 + dx[4]^2.

is independent of the choice of the body of reference. We call the magnitude ds the ” distance ” apart of the two events or fourdimensional points.

Thus, if we choose as time-variable the imaginary variable sq. rt. -I . ct instead of the real quantity t, we can regard the space-time contintium — accordance with the special theory of relativity — as a “, Euclidean ” fourdimensional continuum, a result which follows from the considerations of the preceding section.

Notes

*) Cf. Appendixes I and 2. The relations which are derived there for the co-ordlnates themselves are valid also for coordinate differences, and thus also for coordinate differentials (indefinitely small differences).

THE SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF REALTIIVTY IS NOT A ECULIDEAN CONTINUUM

In the first part of this book we were able to make use of space-time coordinates which allowed of a simple and direct physical interpretation, and which, according to Section 26, can be regarded as fourdimensional Cartesian coordinates. This was possible on the basis of the law of the constancy of the velocity of tight. But according to Section 21 the general theory of relativity cannot retain this law. On the contrary, we arrived at the result that according to this latter theory the velocity of light must always depend on the coordinates when a gravitational field is present. In connection with a specific illustration in Section 23, we found that the presence of a gravitational field invalidates the definition of the coordinates and the ifine, which led us to our objective in the special theory of relativity.

In view of the resuIts of these considerations we are led to the conviction that, according to the general principle of relativity, the space-time continuum cannot be regarded as a Euclidean one, but that here we have the general case, corresponding to the marble slab with local variations of temperature, and with which we made acquaintance as an example of a two-dimensional continuum. Just as it was there impossible to construct a Cartesian coordinate system from equal rods, so here it is impossible to build up a system (reference-body) from rigid bodies and clocks, which shall be of such a nature that measuringrods and clocks, arranged rigidly with respect to one another, shaIll indicate position and time directly. Such was the essence of the difficulty with which we were confronted in Section

But the considerations of Sections 25 and 26 show us the way to surmount this difficulty. We refer the fourdimensional space-time continuum in an arbitrary manner to Gauss coordinates. We assign to every point of the continuum (event) four numbers, x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4] (coordinates), which have not the least direct physical significance, but only serve the purpose of numbering the points of the continuum in a definite but arbitrary manner. This arrangement does not even need to be of such a kind that we must regard x[1], x[2], x[3], as “space” coordinates and x[4], as a ” time ” coordinate.

The reader may think that such a description of the world would be quite inadequate. What does it mean to assign to an event the particular coordinates x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4], if in themselves these coordinates have no significance ? More careful consideration shows, however, that this anxiety is unfounded. Let us consider, for instance, a material point with any kind of motion. If this point had only a momentary existence without duration, then it would to described in space-time by a single system of values x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4]. Thus its permanent existence must be characterised by an infinitely large number of such systems of values, the coordinate values of which are so close together as to give continuity; corresponding to the material point, we thus have a (uni-dimensional) line in the fourdimensional continuum. In the same way, any such lines in our continuum correspond to many points in motion. The only statements having regard to these points which can claim a physical existence are in reality the statements about their encounters. In our mathematical treatment, such an encounter is expressed in the fact that the two lines which represent the motions of the points in question have a particular system of coordinate values, x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4], in common. After mature consideration the reader will doubtless admit that in reality such encounters constitute the only actual evidence of a time-space nature with which we meet in physical statements.

When we were describing the motion of a material point relative to a body of reference, we stated nothing more than the encounters of this point with particular points of the reference-body. We can also determine the corresponding values of the time by the observation of encounters of the body with clocks, in conjunction with the observation of the encounter of the hands of clocks with particular points on the dials. It is just the same in the case of space-measurements by means of measuringrods, as a litttle consideration will show.

The following statements hold generally : Every physical description resolves itself into a number of statements, each of which refers to the space-time coincidence of two events A and B. In terms of Gaussian coordinates, every such statement is expressed by the agreement of their four coordinates x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4]. Thus in reality, the description of the time-space continuum by means of Gauss coordinates completely replaces the description with the aid of a body of reference, without suffering from the defects of the latter mode of description; it is not tied down to the Euclidean character of the continuum which has to be represented.

EXACT FORMULATION OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY

We are now in a position to replace the pro. visional formulation of the general principle of relativity given in Section 18 by an exact formulation. The form there used, “All bodies of reference K, K1, etc., are equivalent for the description of natural phenomena (formulation of the general laws of nature), whatever may be their state of motion,” cannot be maintained, because the use of rigid reference-bodies, in the sense of the method followed in the special theory of relativity, is in general not possible in space-time description. The Gauss coordinate system has to take the place of the body of reference. The following statement corresponds to the fundamental idea of the general principle of relativity: “All Gaussian coordinate systems are essentially equivalent for the formulation of the general laws of nature.”

We can state this general principle of relativity in still another form, which renders it yet more clearly intelligible than it is when in the form of the natural extension of the special principle of relativity. According to the special theory of relativity, the equations which express the general laws of nature pass over into equations of the same form when, by making use of the Lorentz transformation, we replace the space-time variables x, y, z, t, of a (Galileian) reference-body K by the space-time variables x1, y1, z1, t1, of a new reference-body K1. According to the general theory of relativity, on the other hand, by application of arbitrary substitutions of the Gauss variables x[1], x[2], x[3], x[4], the equations must pass over into equations of the same form; for every transformation (not only the Lorentz transformation) corresponds to the transition of one Gauss coordinate system into another.

If we desire to adhere to our “old-time” three-dimensional view of things, then we can characterise the development which is being undergone by the fundamental idea of the general theory of relativity as follows : The special theory of relativity has reference to Galileian domains, i.e. to those in which no gravitational field exists. In this connection a Galileian reference-body serves as body of reference, i.e. a rigid body the state of motion of which is so chosen that the Galileian law of the uniform rectilinear motion of “isolated” material points holds relatively to it.

Certain considerations suggest that we should refer the same Galileian domains to non-Galileian reference-bodies also. A gravitational field of a special kind is then present with respect to these bodies (cf. Sections 20 and 23).

In gravitational fields there are no such things as rigid bodies with Euclidean properties; thus the fictitious rigid body of reference is of no avail in the general theory of relativity. The motion of clocks is also influenced by gravitational fields, and in such a way that a physical definition of time which is made directly with the aid of clocks has by no means the same degree of plausibility as in the special theory of relativity.

For this reason non-rigid reference-bodies are used, which are as a whole not only moving in any way whatsoever, but which also suffer alterations in form ad lib. during their motion. Clocks, for which the law of motion is of any kind, however irregular, serve for the definition of time. We have to imagine each of these clocks fixed at a point on the non-rigid reference-body. These clocks satisfy only the one condition, that the “readings” which are observed simultaneously on adjacent clocks (in space) differ from each other by an indefinitely small amount. This non-rigid reference-body, which might appropriately be termed a “reference-mollusc”, is in the main equivalent to a Gaussian fourdimensional coordinate system chosen arbitrarily. That which gives the “mollusc” a certain comprehensibility as compared with the Gauss coordinate system is the (really unjustified) formal retention of the separate existence of the space coordinates as opposed to the time coordinate. Every point on the mollusc is treated as a space-point, and every material point which is at rest relatively to it as at rest, so long as the mollusc is considered as reference-body. The general principle of relativity requires that all these molluscs can be used as reference-bodies with equal right and equal success in the formulation of the general laws of nature; the laws themselves must be quite independent of the choice of mollusc.

The great power possessed by the general principle of relativity lies in the comprehensive limitation which is imposed on the laws of nature in consequence of what we have seen above.

THE SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF GRAVITATION ON THE BASIS OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY

If the reader has followed all our previous considerations, he will have no further difficulty in understanding the methods leading to the solution of the problem of gravitation.

We start off on a consideration of a Galileian domain, i.e. a domain in which there is no gravitational field relative to the Galileian reference-body K. The behaviour of measuringrods and clocks with reference to K is known from the special theory of relativity, likewise the behaviour of “isolated” material points; the latter move uniformly and in straight lines.

Now let us refer this domain to a random Gauss coordinate system or to a