An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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Many useful alloys contain tin, some of which have been mentioned in connection with copper. When tin is alloyed with other metals of low melting point, soft, easily melted alloys are formed which are used for friction bearings in machinery; tin, antimony, lead, and bismuth are the chief constituents of these alloys. Pewter and soft solder are alloys of tin and lead.
Compounds of tin. Tin forms two series of compounds: the stannous, in which the tin is divalent, illustrated in the compounds SnO, SnS, SnCl2; the stannic, in which it is tetravalent as shown in the compounds SnO2, SnS2. There is also an acid, H2SnO3, called stannic acid, which forms a series of salts called stannates. While this acid has the same composition as metastannic acid, the two are quite different in their chemical properties. This difference is probably due to the different arrangement of the atoms in the molecules of the two substances. Only a few compounds of tin need be mentioned.
Stannic oxide (SnO2). Stannic oxide is of interest, since it is the chief compound of tin found in nature. It is sometimes found in good-sized crystals, but as prepared in the laboratory is a white powder. When fused with potassium hydroxide it forms potassium stannate, acting very much like silicon dioxide:
Chlorides of tin. Stannous chloride is prepared by dissolving tin in concentrated hydrochloric acid and evaporating the solution to crystallization. The crystals which are obtained have the composition SnCl2·2H2O, and are known as tin crystals. By treating a solution of stannous chloride with aqua regia, stannic chloride is formed:
The salt which crystallizes from such a solution has the composition SnCl4·5H2O, and is known commercially as oxymuriate of tin. If metallic tin is heated in a current of dry chlorine, the anhydrous chloride (SnCl4) is obtained as a heavy colorless liquid which fumes strongly on exposure to air.
The ease with which stannous chloride takes up chlorine to form stannic chloride makes it a good reducing agent in many reactions, changing the higher chlorides of metals to lower ones. Thus mercuric chloride is changed into mercurous chloride:
If the stannous chloride is in excess, the reaction may go further, producing metallic mercury:
Ferric chloride is in like manner reduced to ferrous chloride:
The chlorides of tin, as well as the alkali stannates, are much used as mordants in dyeing processes. The hydroxides of tin and free stannic acid, which are easily liberated from these compounds, possess in very marked degree the power of fixing dyes upon fibers, as explained under aluminium.
LEADOccurrence. Lead is found in nature chiefly as the sulphide (PbS), called galena; to a much smaller extent it occurs as carbonate, sulphate, chromate, and in a few other forms. Practically all the lead of commerce is made from galena, two general methods of metallurgy being in use.
Metallurgy. 1. The sulphide is melted with scrap iron, when iron sulphide and metallic lead are formed; the liquid lead, being the heavier, sinks to the bottom of the vessel and can be drawn off:
2. The sulphide is roasted in the air until a part of it has been changed into oxide and sulphate. The air is then shut off and the heating continued, the reactions indicated in the following equations taking place:
The lead so prepared usually contains small amounts of silver, arsenic, antimony, copper, and other metals. The silver is removed by Parkes's method, as described under silver, and the other metals in various ways. The lead of commerce is one of the purest commercial metals, containing as a rule only a few tenths per cent of impurities.
Properties. Lead is a heavy metal (den. = 11.33) which has a brilliant silvery luster on a freshly cut surface, but which soon tarnishes to a dull blue-gray color. It is soft, easily fused (melting at 327°), and quite malleable, but has little toughness or strength.
It is not acted upon to any great extent by the oxygen of the air under ordinary conditions, but is changed into oxide at a high temperature. With the exception of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, most acids, even very weak ones, act upon it, forming soluble lead salts. Hot, concentrated hydrochloric and sulphuric acids also attack it to a slight extent.
Uses. Lead is employed in the manufacture of lead pipes and in large storage batteries. In the form of sheet lead it is used in lining the chambers of sulphuric acid works and in the preparation of paint pigments. Some alloys of lead, such as solder and pewter (lead and tin), shot (lead and arsenic), and soft bearing metals, are widely used. Type metal consists of lead, antimony, and sometimes tin. Compounds of lead form several important pigments.
Compounds of lead. In nearly all its compounds lead has a valence of 2, but a few corresponding to stannic compounds have a valence of 4.
Lead oxides. Lead forms a number of oxides, the most important of which are litharge, red lead or minium, and lead peroxide.
1. Litharge (PbO). This oxide forms when lead is oxidized at a rather low temperature, and is obtained as a by-product in silver refining. It is a pale yellow powder, and has a number of commercial uses. It is easily soluble in nitric acid:
2. Red lead, or minium (Pb3O4). Minium is prepared by heating lead (or litharge) to a high temperature in the air. It is a heavy powder of a beautiful red color, and is much used as a pigment.
3. Lead peroxide (PbO2). This is left as a residue when minium is heated with nitric acid:
Pb3O4 + 4HNO3 = 2Pb(NO3)2 + PbO2 + 2H2O.
It is a brown powder which easily gives up a part of its oxygen and, like manganese dioxide and barium dioxide, is a good oxidizing agent.
Soluble salts of lead. The soluble salts of lead can be made by dissolving litharge in acids. Lead acetate (Pb(C2H3O2)2·3H2O), called sugar of lead, and lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2) are the most familiar examples. They are while crystalline solids and are poisonous in character.
Insoluble salts of lead; lead carbonate. While the normal carbonate of lead (PbCO3) is found to some extent, in nature and can be prepared in the laboratory, basic carbonates of varying composition are much more easy to obtain. One of the simplest of these has the composition 2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2. A mixture of such carbonates is called white lead. This is prepared on a large scale as a paint pigment and as a body for paints which are to be colored with other substances.
White lead. White lead is an amorphous white substance which, when mixed with oil, has great covering power, that is, it spreads out in an even waxy film, free from streaks and lumps, and covers the entire surface upon which it is spread. Its disadvantage as a pigment lies in the fact that it gradually blackens when exposed to sulphur compounds, which are often present in the air, forming black lead sulphide (PbS).
Technical preparation of white lead. Different methods are used in the preparation of white lead, but the old one known as the Dutch process is still the principal one employed. In this process, earthenware pots about ten inches high and of the shape shown in Fig. 89 are used. In the bottom A is placed a 3% solution of acetic acid (vinegar answers the purpose very well). The space above this is filled with thin, perforated, circular pieces of lead, supported by the flange B of the pot. These pots are placed close together on a bed of tan bark on the floor of a room known as the corroding room. They are covered over with boards, upon which tan bark is placed, and another row of pots is placed on this. In this way the room is filled. The white lead is formed by the fumes of the acetic acid, together with the carbon dioxide set free in the fermentation of the tan bark acting on the lead. About three months are required to complete the process.
Lead sulphide (PbS). In nature this compound occurs in highly crystalline condition, the crystals having much the same luster as pure lead. It is readily prepared in the laboratory as a black precipitate, by the action of hydrosulphuric acid upon soluble lead salts:
It is insoluble both in water and in dilute acids.
Other insoluble salts. Lead chromate (PbCrO4) is a yellow substance produced by the action of a soluble lead salt upon a soluble chromate, thus:
It is used as a yellow pigment. Lead sulphate (PbSO4) is a white substance sometimes found in nature and easily prepared by precipitation. Lead chloride (PbCl2) is likewise a white substance nearly insoluble in cold water, but readily soluble in boiling water.
Thorium and cerium. These elements are found in a few rare minerals, especially in the monazite sand of the Carolinas and Brazil. The oxides of these elements are used in the preparation of the Welsbach mantles for gas lights, because of the intense light given out when a mixture of the oxides is heated. These mantles contain the oxides of cerium and thorium in the ratio of about 1% of the former to 99% of the latter. Compounds of thorium, like those of radium, are found to possess radio-activity, but in a less degree.
EXERCISES1. How could you detect lead if present in tin foil?
2. Stannous chloride reduces gold chloride (AuCl3) to gold. Give equation.
3. What are the products of hydrolysis when stannic chloride is used as a mordant?
4. How could you detect arsenic, antimony, or copper in lead?
5. Why is lead so extensively used for making water pipes?
6. What sulphates other than lead are insoluble?
7. Could lead nitrate be used in place of barium chloride in testing for sulphates?
8. How much lead peroxide could be obtained from 1 kg. of minium?
9. The purity of white lead is usually determined by observing the volume of carbon dioxide given off when it is treated with an acid. What acid should be used? On the supposition that it has the formula 2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2, how nearly pure was a sample if 1 g. gave 30 cc. of carbon dioxide at 20° and 750 mm.?
10. Silicon belongs in the same family with tin and lead. In what respects are these elements similar?
11. What weight of tin could be obtained by the reduction of 1 ton of cassiterite?
12. What reaction would you expect to take place when lead peroxide is treated with hydrochloric acid?
13. White lead is often adulterated with barytes. Suggest a method for detecting it, if present, in a given example of white lead.
CHAPTER XXX MANGANESE AND CHROMIUMGeneral. Manganese and chromium, while belonging to different families, have so many features in common in their chemical conduct that they may be studied together with advantage. They
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