An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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Similarly, one atom of divalent calcium will replace two atoms of univalent hydrogen or one of divalent zinc:
In like manner, one atom of a trivalent element will replace three of a univalent element, or two atoms will replace three atoms of a divalent element.
Valence and its applications to formulas of salts. While the true nature of valence is not understood and many questions connected with the subject remain unanswered, yet many of the main facts are of much help to the student. Thus the formula of a salt, differs from that of the acid from which it is derived in that the hydrogen of the acid has been replaced by a metal. If, then, it is known that a given metal forms a normal salt with a certain acid, the formula of the salt can at once be determined if the valence of the metal is known. Since sodium is univalent, the sodium salts of the acids HCl and H2SO4 will be respectively NaCl and Na2SO4. One atom of divalent zinc will replace 2 hydrogen atoms, so that the corresponding zinc salts will be ZnCl2 and ZnSO4.
The formula for aluminium sulphate is somewhat more difficult to determine. Aluminium is trivalent, and the simplest ratio in which the aluminium atom can replace the hydrogen in sulphuric acid is 2 atoms of aluminium (6 valences) to 3 molecules of sulphuric acid (6 hydrogen atoms). The formula of the sulphate will then be Al2(SO4)3.
Valence and its application to equation writing. It will be readily seen that a knowledge of valence is also of very great assistance in writing the equations for reactions of double decomposition. Thus, in the general reaction between an acid and a base, the essential action is between the univalent hydrogen ion and the univalent hydroxyl ion. The base and the acid must always be taken in such proportions as to secure an equal number of each of these ions. Thus, in the reaction between ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4), it will be necessary to take 2 molecules of the former and 3 of the latter in order to have an equal number of the two ions, namely, 6. The equation will then be
Under certain conditions the salts Al2(SO4)3 and CaCl2 undergo double decomposition, the two metals, aluminium and calcium, exchanging places. The simplest ratio of exchange in this case is 2 atoms of aluminium (6 valences) and 3 atoms of calcium (6 valences). The reaction will therefore take place between 1 molecule of Al2(SO4)3 and 3 of CaCl2, and the equation is as follows:
EXERCISES
1. Sodium, calcium, and aluminium have valences of 1, 2, and 3 respectively; write the formulas of their chlorides, sulphates, and phosphates (phosphoric acid = H3PO4), on the supposition that they form salts having the normal composition.
2. Iron forms one series of salts in which it has a valence of 2, and another series in which it has a valence of 3; write the formulas for the two chlorides of iron, also for the two sulphates, on the supposition that these have the normal composition.
3. Write the equation representing the neutralization of each of the following bases by each of the acids whose formulas are given:
4. Silver acts as a univalent element and calcium as a divalent element in the formation of their respective nitrates and chlorides. (a) Write the formula for silver nitrate; for calcium chloride. (b) When solutions of these two salts are mixed, the two metals, silver and calcium, exchange places; write the equation for the reaction.
5. Antimony acts as a trivalent element in the formation of a chloride. (a) What is the formula for antimony chloride? (b) When hydrosulphuric acid (H2S) is passed into a solution of this chloride the hydrogen and antimony exchange places; write the equation for the reaction.
6. Lead has a valence of 2 and iron of 3 in the compounds known respectively as lead nitrate and ferric sulphate. (a) Write the formulas for these two compounds. (b) When their solutions are mixed the two metals exchange places; write the equation for the reaction.
CHAPTER XII COMPOUNDS OF NITROGENOccurrence. As has been stated in a former chapter, nitrogen constitutes a large fraction of the atmosphere. The compounds of nitrogen, however, cannot readily be obtained from this source, since at any ordinary temperature nitrogen is able to combine directly with very few of the elements.
In certain forms of combination nitrogen occurs in the soil from which it is taken up by plants and built into complex substances composed chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Animals feeding on these plants assimilate the nitrogenous matter, so that this element is an essential constituent of both plants and animals.
Decomposition of organic matter by bacteria. When living matter dies and undergoes decay complicated chemical reactions take place, one result of which is that the nitrogen of the organic matter is set free either as the element nitrogen, or in the form of simple compounds, such as ammonia (NH3) or oxides of nitrogen. Experiment has shown that all such processes of decay are due to the action of different kinds of bacteria, each particular kind effecting a different change.
Decomposition of organic matter by heat. When organic matter is strongly heated decomposition into simpler substances takes place in much the same way as in the case of bacterial decomposition. Coal is a complex substance of vegetable origin, consisting largely of carbon, but also containing hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. When this is heated in a closed vessel so that air is excluded, about one seventh of the nitrogen is converted into ammonia, and this is the chief source from which ammonia and its compounds are obtained.
COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN WITH HYDROGENAmmonia (NH3). Several compounds consisting exclusively of nitrogen and hydrogen are known, but only one, ammonia, need be considered here.
Preparation of ammonia. Ammonia is prepared in the laboratory by a different method from the one which is used commercially.
1. Laboratory method. In the laboratory ammonia is prepared from ammonium chloride, a compound having the formula NH4Cl, and obtained in the manufacture of coal gas. As will be shown later in the chapter, the group NH4 in this compound acts as a univalent radical and is known as ammonium. When ammonium chloride is warmed with sodium hydroxide, the ammonium and sodium change places, the reaction being expressed in the following equation.
The ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) so formed is unstable and breaks down into water and ammonia.
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is frequently used in place of the more expensive sodium hydroxide, the equations being
In the preparation, the ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide are mixed together and placed in a flask arranged as shown in Fig. 35. The mixture is gently warmed, when ammonia is evolved as a gas and is collected by displacement of air.
2. Commercial method. Nearly all the ammonia of commerce comes from the gasworks. Ordinary illuminating gas is made by distilling coal, as will be explained later, and among the products of this distillation a solution of ammonia in water is obtained. This solution, known as gas liquor, contains not only ammonia but other soluble substances. Most of these combine chemically with lime, while ammonia does not; if then lime is added to the gas liquor and the liquor is heated, the ammonia is driven out from the mixture. It may be dissolved again in pure, cold water, forming aqua ammonia, or the ammonia water of commerce.
Preparation from hydrogen and nitrogen. When electric sparks are passed for some time through a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen, a small percentage of the two elements in the mixture is changed into ammonia. The action soon ceases, however, for the reason that ammonia is decomposed by the electric discharge. The reaction expressed in the equation
N + 3H = NH3
can therefore go in either direction depending upon the relative quantities of the substances present. This recalls the similar change from oxygen into ozone, which soon ceases because the ozone is in turn decomposed into oxygen.
Physical properties. Under ordinary conditions ammonia is a gas whose density is 0.59. It is therefore little more than half as heavy as air. It is easily condensed into a colorless liquid, and can now be purchased in liquid form in steel cylinders. The gas is colorless and has a strong, suffocating odor. It is extremely soluble in water, 1 l. of water at 0° and 760 mm. pressure dissolving 1148 l. of the gas. In dissolving this large volume of gas the water expands considerably, so that the density of the solution is less than that of water, the strongest solutions having a density of 0.88.
Chemical properties. Ammonia will not support combustion, nor will it burn under ordinary conditions. In an atmosphere of oxygen it burns with a feeble, yellowish flame. When quite dry it is not a very active substance, but when moist it combines with a great many substances, particularly with acids.
Uses. It has been stated that ammonia can be condensed to a liquid by the application of pressure. If the pressure is removed from the liquid so obtained, it rapidly passes again into the gaseous state and in so doing absorbs a large amount of heat. Advantage is taken of this fact in the preparation of artificial ice. Large quantities of ammonia are also used in the preparation of ammonium compounds.
The manufacture of artificial ice. Fig. 36 illustrates the method of preparing artificial ice. The ammonia gas is liquefied in the pipes X by means of the pump Y. The heat generated is absorbed by water flowing over the pipes. The pipes lead into a large brine tank, a cross section of which is shown in the figure. Into the brine (concentrated solution of common salt) contained in this tank are dipped the vessels A, B, C, filled with pure water. The pressure is removed from the liquid ammonia as it passes into the pipes immersed in the brine, and the heat absorbed by the rapid evaporation of the liquid lowers the temperature of the brine below zero. The water in A, B, C is thereby frozen into cakes of ice. The gaseous ammonia resulting from the evaporation of the liquid ammonia is again condensed, so that the process is continuous.
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). The solution of ammonia in water is found to have strong basic properties and therefore contains hydroxyl ions. It turns red litmus blue; it has a soapy feel; it neutralizes acids, forming salts with them. It seems probable, therefore, that when ammonia dissolves in water it combines chemically with it according to the equation
and that it is the substance NH4OH, called ammonium hydroxide, which has the basic properties, dissociating into the ions NH4 and OH. Ammonium hydroxide has never been obtained in a pure state. At every attempt to isolate it the substance breaks up into water and ammonia,—
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