An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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Chemical properties. Sulphur dioxide has a marked tendency to combine with other substances, and is therefore an active substance chemically. It combines with oxygen gas, but not very easily. It can, however, take oxygen away from some other substances, and is therefore a good reducing agent. Its most marked chemical property is its ability to combine with water to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3).
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3). When sulphur dioxide dissolves in water it combines chemically with it to form sulphurous acid, an unstable substance having the formula H3SO3. It is impossible to prepare this acid in pure form, as it breaks down very easily into water and sulphur dioxide. The reaction is therefore reversible, and is expressed by the equation
Solutions of the acid in water have a number of interesting properties.
1. Acid properties. The solution has all the properties typical of an acid. When neutralized by bases, sulphurous acid yields a series of salts called sulphites.
2. Reducing properties. Solutions of sulphurous acid act as good reducing agents. This is due to the fact that sulphurous acid has the power of taking up oxygen from the air, or from substances rich in oxygen, and is changed by this reaction into sulphuric acid:
3. Bleaching properties. Sulphurous acid has strong bleaching properties, acting upon many colored substances in such a way as to destroy their color. It is on this account used to bleach paper, straw goods, and even such foods as canned corn.
4. Antiseptic properties. Sulphurous acid has marked antiseptic properties, and on this account has the power of arresting fermentation. It is therefore used as a preservative.
Salts of sulphurous acid,—sulphites. The sulphites, like sulphurous acid, have the power of taking up oxygen very readily, and are good reducing agents. On account of this tendency, commercial sulphites are often contaminated with sulphates. A great deal of sodium sulphite is used in the bleaching industry, and as a reagent for softening paper pulp.
Sulphur trioxide (SO3). When sulphur dioxide and oxygen are heated together at a rather high temperature, a small amount of sulphur trioxide (SO3) is formed, but the reaction is slow and incomplete. If, however, the heating takes place in the presence of very fine platinum dust, the reaction is rapid and nearly complete.
Experimental preparation of sulphur trioxide. The experiment can be performed by the use of the apparatus shown in Fig. 43, the fine platinum being secured by moistening asbestos fiber with a solution of platinum chloride and igniting it in a flame. The fiber, covered with fine platinum, is placed in a tube of hard glass, which is then heated with a burner to about 350°, while sulphur dioxide and air are passed into the tube. Union takes place at once, and the strongly fuming sulphur trioxide escapes from the jet at the end of the tube, and may be condensed by surrounding the receiving tube with a freezing mixture.
Properties of sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide is a colorless liquid, which solidifies at about 15° and boils at 46°. A trace of moisture causes it to solidify into a mass of silky white crystals, somewhat resembling asbestos fiber in appearance. In contact with the air it fumes strongly, and when thrown upon water it dissolves with a hissing sound and the liberation of a great deal of heat. The product of this reaction is sulphuric acid, so that sulphur trioxide is the anhydride of that acid:
Catalysis. It has been found that many chemical reactions, such as the union of sulphur dioxide with oxygen, are much influenced by the presence of substances which do not themselves seem to take a part in the reaction, and are left apparently unchanged after it has ceased. These reactions go on very slowly under ordinary circumstances, but are greatly hastened by the presence of the foreign substance. Substances which hasten very slow reactions in this way are said to act as catalytic agents or catalyzers, and the action is called catalysis. Just how the action is brought about is not well understood.
DEFINITION: A catalyzer is a substance which changes the velocity of a reaction, but does not change its products.
Examples of Catalysis. We have already had several instances of such action. Oxygen and hydrogen combine with each other at ordinary temperatures in the presence of platinum powder, while if no catalytic agent is present they do not combine in appreciable quantities until a rather high temperature is reached. Potassium chlorate, when heated with manganese dioxide, gives up its oxygen at a much lower temperature than when heated alone. Hydrogen dioxide decomposes very rapidly when powdered manganese dioxide is sifted into its concentrated solution.
On the other hand, the catalytic agent sometimes retards chemical action. For example, a solution of hydrogen dioxide decomposes more slowly when it contains a little phosphoric acid than when perfectly pure. For this reason commercial hydrogen dioxide always contains phosphoric acid.
Many reactions are brought about by the catalytic action of traces of water. For example, phosphorus will not burn in oxygen in the absence of all moisture. Hydrochloric acid will not unite with ammonia if the reagents are perfectly dry. It is probable that many of the chemical transformations in physiological processes, such as digestion, are assisted by certain substances acting as catalytic agents. The principle of catalysis is therefore very important.
Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) (H2SO4). Sulphuric acid is one of the most important of all manufactured chemicals. Not only is it one of the most common reagents in the laboratory, but enormous quantities of it are used in many of the industries, especially in the refining of petroleum, the manufacture of nitroglycerin, sodium carbonate, and fertilizers.
Manufacture of sulphuric acid. 1. Contact process. The reactions taking place in this process are represented by the following equations:
To bring about the first of these reactions rapidly, a catalyzer is employed, and the process is carried out in the following way: Large iron tubes are packed with some porous material, such as calcium and magnesium sulphates, which contains a suitable catalytic substance scattered through it. The catalyzers most used are platinum powder, vanadium oxide, and iron oxide. Purified sulphur dioxide and air are passed through the tubes, which are kept at a temperature of about 350°. Sulphur trioxide is formed, and as it issues from the tube it is absorbed in water or dilute sulphuric acid. The process is continued until all the water in the absorbing vessel has been changed into sulphuric acid, so that a very concentrated acid is made in this way. An excess of the trioxide may dissolve in the strong sulphuric acid, forming what is known as fuming sulphuric acid.
2. Chamber process. The method of manufacture exclusively employed until recent years, and still in very extensive use, is much more complicated. The reactions are quite involved, but the conversion of water, sulphur dioxide, and oxygen into sulphuric acid is accomplished by the catalytic action of oxides of nitrogen. The reactions are brought about in large lead-lined chambers, into which oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, steam, and air are introduced in suitable proportions.
Reactions of the chamber process. In a very general way, the various reactions which take place in the lead chambers may be expressed in two equations. In the first reaction sulphur dioxide, nitrogen peroxide, steam, and oxygen unite, as shown in the equation
(1) 2SO2 + 2NO2 + H2O + O = 2SO2 (OH) (NO2).
The product formed in this reaction is called nitrosulphuric acid or "chamber crystals." It actually separates on the walls of the chambers when the process is not working properly. Under normal conditions, it is decomposed as fast as it is formed by the action of excess of steam, as shown in the equation
(2) 2SO2 (OH) (NO2) + H2O + O = 2H2SO4 + 2NO2.
The nitrogen dioxide formed in this reaction can now enter into combination with a new quantity of sulphur dioxide, steam, and oxygen, and the series of reactions go on indefinitely. Many other reactions occur, but these two illustrate the principle of the process.
The relation between sulphuric acid and nitrosulphuric acid can be seen by comparing their structural formulas:
The latter may be regarded as derived from the former by the substitution of the nitro group (NO2) for the hydroxyl group (OH).
The sulphuric acid plant. Fig. 44 illustrates the simpler parts of a plant used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the chamber process. Sulphur or some sulphide, as FeS2, is burned in furnace A. The resulting sulphur dioxide, together with air and some nitrogen peroxide, are conducted into the large chambers, the capacity of each chamber being about 75,000 cu. ft. Steam is also admitted into these chambers at different points. These compounds react to form sulphuric acid, according to the equations given above. The nitrogen left after the withdrawal of the oxygen from the admitted air escapes through the Gay-Lussac tower X. In order to prevent the escape of the oxides of nitrogen regenerated in the reaction, the tower is filled with lumps of coke, over which trickles concentrated sulphuric acid admitted from Y. The nitrogen peroxide dissolves in the acid and the resulting solution collects in H. This is pumped into E, where it is mixed with dilute acid and allowed to trickle down through the chamber D (Glover tower), which is filled with some acid-resisting rock. Here the nitrogen peroxide is expelled from the solution by the action of the hot gases entering from A, and together with them enters the first chamber again. The acid from which the nitrogen peroxide is expelled collects in F. Theoretically, a small amount of nitrogen peroxide would suffice to prepare an unlimited amount of sulphuric acid; practically, some of it escapes, and this is replaced by small amounts admitted at B.
The sulphuric acid so formed, together with the excess of condensed steam, collect upon the floor of the chambers in the form of a liquid containing from 62% to 70% of sulphuric acid. The product is called chamber acid and is quite impure; but for many purposes, such as the manufacture of fertilizers, it needs no further treatment. It can be concentrated by boiling it in vessels made of iron or platinum, which resist the action of the acid, nearly all the water boiling off. Pure concentrated acid can be made best by the contact process, while the chamber process is cheaper for the dilute impure acid.
Physical properties. Sulphuric acid is a colorless, oily liquid, nearly twice as heavy as water. The ordinary concentrated acid contains about 2% of water, has a density of 1.84, and boils at 338°. It is sometimes called oil of vitriol, since it was formerly made by distilling a substance called green vitriol.
Chemical properties. Sulphuric acid possesses chemical properties which make it one of the most important of chemical substances.
1. Action as an acid. In dilute solution sulphuric acid acts as any other acid, forming salts with oxides and hydroxides.
2. Action as an oxidizing agent. Sulphuric acid contains a large percentage of oxygen and is, like nitric acid, a very good oxidizing agent. When the concentrated acid is heated with sulphur, carbon, and many other substances, oxidation takes place, the sulphuric acid decomposing according to the equation
3. Action on metals. In dilute solution sulphuric acid acts upon many metals, such as zinc,
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