An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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About eighty elements are now known. If all of these should have properties as diverse as do oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, the study of chemistry would plainly be a very difficult and complicated one. If, however, the elements can be classified in groups, the members of which have very similar properties, the study will be very much simplified.
Earlier classification of the elements. Even at an early period efforts were made to discover some natural principle in accordance with which the elements could be classified. Two of these classifications may be mentioned here.
1. Classification into metals and non-metals. The classification into metals and non-metals most naturally suggested itself. This grouping was based largely on physical properties, the metals being heavy, lustrous, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Elements possessing these properties are usually base-forming in character, and the ability to form bases came to be regarded as a characteristic property of the metals. The non-metals possessed physical properties which were the reverse of those of the metals, and were acid-forming in character.
Not much was gained by this classification, and it was very imperfect. Some metals, such as potassium, are very light; some non-metals, such as iodine, have a high luster; some elements can form either an acid or a base.
2. Classification into triad families. In 1825 Döbereiner observed that an interesting relation exists between the atomic weights of chemically similar elements. To illustrate, lithium, sodium, and potassium resemble each other very closely, and the atomic weight of sodium is almost exactly an arithmetical mean between those of the other two: (7.03 + 39.15)/2 = 23.09. In many chemical and physical properties sodium is midway between the other two.
A number of triad families were found, but among eighty elements, whose atomic weights range all the way from 1 to 240, such agreements might be mere chance. Moreover many elements did not appear to belong to such families.
Periodic division. In 1869 the Russian chemist Mendeléeff devised an arrangement of the elements based on their atomic weights, which has proved to be of great service in the comparative study of the elements. A few months later the German, Lothar Meyer, independently suggested the same ideas. This arrangement brought to light a great generalization, now known as the periodic law. An exact statement of the law will be given after the method of arranging the elements has been described.
Author of the periodic law; made many investigations on the physical constants of elements and compounds; wrote an important book entitled "Principles of Chemistry"; university professor and government official
Arrangement of the periodic table. The arrangement suggested by Mendeléeff, modified somewhat by more recent investigations, is as follows: Beginning with lithium, which has an atomic weight of 7, the elements are arranged in a horizontal row in the order of their atomic weights, thus:
Li (7.03), Be (9.1), B (11), C (12), N (14.04), O (16), F (19).
These seven elements all differ markedly from each other. The eighth element, sodium, is very similar to lithium. It is placed just under lithium, and a new row follows:
Na(23.05), Mg (24.36), Al (27.1), Si (28.4), P (31), S (32.06), Cl(35.45).
When the fifteenth element, potassium, is reached, it is placed under sodium, to which it is very similar, and serves to begin a third row:
K (39.15), Ca (40.1), Sc (44.1,) Ti (48.1), V (51.2), Cr (52.1), Mn(55).
Not only is there a strong similarity between lithium, sodium, and potassium, which have been placed in a vertical row because of this resemblance, but the elements in the other vertical rows exhibit much of the same kind of similarity among themselves, and evidently form little natural groups.
The three elements following manganese, namely, iron, nickel, and cobalt, have atomic weights near together, and are very similar chemically. They do not strongly resemble any of the elements so far considered, and are accordingly placed in a group by themselves, following manganese. A new row is begun with copper, which somewhat resembles the elements of the first vertical column. Following the fifth and seventh rows are groups of three closely related elements, so that the completed arrangement has the appearance represented in the table on page 168.
Place of the atmospheric elements. When argon was discovered it was seen at once that there was no place in the table for an element of atomic weight approximately 40. When the other inactive elements were found, however, it became apparent that they form a group just preceding Group 1. They are accordingly arranged in this way in Group 0 (see table on opposite page). A study of this table brings to light certain very striking facts.
Properties of elements vary with atomic weights. There is evidently a close relation between the properties of an element and its atomic weight. Lithium, at the beginning of the first group, is a very strong base-forming element, with pronounced metallic properties. Beryllium, following lithium, is less strongly base-forming, while boron has some base-forming and some acid-forming properties. In carbon all base-forming properties have disappeared, and the acid-forming properties are more marked than in boron. These become still more emphasized as we pass through nitrogen and oxygen, until on reaching fluorine we have one of the strongest acid-forming elements. The properties of these seven elements therefore vary regularly with their atomic weights, or, in mathematical language, are regular functions of them.
Periodic law. The properties of the first seven elements vary continuously—that is steadily—away from base-forming and toward acid-forming properties. If lithium had the smallest atomic weight of any of the elements, and fluorine the greatest, so that in passing from one to the other we had included all the elements, we could say that the properties of elements are continuous functions of their atomic weights. But fluorine is an element of small atomic weight, and the one following it, sodium, breaks the regular order, for in it reappear all the characteristic properties of lithium. Magnesium, following sodium, bears much the same relation to beryllium that sodium does to lithium, and the properties of the elements in the second row vary much as they do in the first row until potassium is reached, when another repetition begins. The properties of the elements do not vary continuously, therefore, with atomic weights, but at regular intervals there is a repetition, or period. This generalization is known as the periodic law, and may be stated thus: The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.
The two families in a group. While all the elements in a given vertical column bear a general resemblance to each other, it has been noticed that those belonging to periods having even numbers are very strikingly similar to each other. They are placed at the left side of the group columns. In like manner, the elements belonging to the odd periods are very similar and are arranged at the right side of the group columns. Thus calcium, strontium, and barium are very much alike; so, too, are magnesium, zinc, and cadmium. The resemblance between calcium and magnesium, or strontium and zinc, is much less marked. This method of arrangement therefore divides each group into two families, each containing four or five members, between which there is a great similarity.
Family resemblances. Let us now inquire more closely in what respects the elements of a family resemble each other.
1. Valence. In general the valence of the elements in a family is the same, and the formulas of their compounds are therefore similar. If we know that the formula of sodium chloride is NaCl, it is pretty certain that the formula of potassium chloride will be KCl—not KCl2 or KCl3. The general formulas R2O, RO, etc., placed below the columns show the formulas of the oxides of the elements in the column provided they form oxides. In like manner the formulas RH, RH2, etc., show the composition of the compounds formed with hydrogen or chlorine.
2. Chemical properties. The chemical properties of the members of a family are quite similar. If one member is a metal, the others usually are; if one is a non-metal, so, too, are the others. The families in the first two columns consist of metals, while the elements found in the last two columns form acids. There is in addition a certain regularity in properties of the elements in each family. If the element at the head of the family is a strong acid-forming element, this property is likely to diminish gradually, as we pass to the members of the family with higher atomic weights. Thus phosphorus is strongly acid-forming, arsenic less so, antimony still less so, while bismuth has almost no acid-forming properties. We shall meet with many illustrations of this fact.
3. Physical properties. In the same way, the physical properties of the members of a family are in general somewhat similar, and show a regular gradation as we pass from element to element in the family. Thus the densities of the members of the magnesium family are
Their melting points are
Value of the periodic law. The periodic law has proved of much value in the development of the science of chemistry.
1. It simplifies study. It is at once evident that such regularities very much simplify the study of chemistry. A thorough study of one element of a family makes the study of the other members a much easier task, since so many of the properties and chemical reactions of the elements are similar. Thus, having studied the element sulphur in some detail, it is not necessary to study selenium and tellurium so closely, for most of their properties can be predicted from the relation which they sustain to sulphur.
2. It predicts new elements. When the periodic law was first formulated there were a number of vacant places in the table which evidently belonged to elements at that time unknown. From their position in the table, Mendeléeff predicted with great precision the properties of the elements which he felt sure would one day be discovered to fill these places. Three of them, scandium, germanium, and gallium, were found within fifteen years, and their properties agreed in a remarkable way with the predictions of Mendeléeff. There are still some vacant places in the table, especially among the heavier elements.
3. It corrects errors. The physical constants of many of the elements did not at first agree with those demanded by the periodic law, and a further study of many such cases showed that errors had been made. The law has therefore done much service in indicating probable error.
Imperfections of the law. There still remain a good many features which must be regarded as imperfections in the law. Most conspicuous is the fact that the element hydrogen has no place in the table. In some of the groups elements appear in one of the families, while all of their properties show that they belong in the other. Thus sodium belongs with lithium and not with copper; fluorine belongs with chlorine and not with manganese. There are two instances where the elements must be transposed in order to make them fit into their proper group. According to their atomic weights, tellurium should follow iodine, and
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