An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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The system is therefore to be regarded as but a partial and imperfect expression of some very important and fundamental relation between the substances which we know as elements, the exact nature of this relation being as yet not completely clear to us.
EXERCISES1. Suppose that an element were discovered that filled the blank in Group O, Period 5; what properties would it probably have?
2. Suppose that an element were discovered that filled the blank in Group VI, Period 9, family B; what properties would it have?
3. Sulphur and oxygen both belong in Group VI, although in different families; in what respects are the two similar?
CHAPTER XVI THE CHLORINE FAMILYThe family. The four elements named in the above table form a strongly marked family of elements and illustrate very clearly the way in which the members of a family in a periodic group resemble each other, as well as the character of the differences which we may expect to find between the individual members.
1. Occurrence. These elements do not occur in nature in the free state. The compounds of the last three elements of the family are found extensively in sea water, and on this account the name halogens, signifying "producers of sea salt," is sometimes applied to the family.
2. Properties. As will be seen by reference to the table, the melting points and boiling points of the elements of the family increase with their atomic weights. A somewhat similar gradation is noted in their color and state. One atom of each of the elements combines with one atom of hydrogen to form acids, which are gases very soluble in water. The affinity of the elements for hydrogen is in the inverse order of their atomic weights, fluorine having the strongest affinity and iodine the weakest. Only chlorine and iodine form oxides, and those of the former element are very unstable. The elements of the group are univalent in their compounds with hydrogen and the metals.
FLUORINEOccurrence. The element fluorine occurs in nature most abundantly as the mineral fluorspar (CaF2), as cryolite (Na3AlF6), and in the complex mineral apatite (3 Ca3(PO4)2·CaF2).
Preparation. All attempts to isolate the element resulted in failure until recent years. Methods similar to those which succeed in the preparation of the other elements of the family cannot be used; for as soon as the fluorine is liberated it combines with the materials of which the apparatus is made or with the hydrogen of the water which is always present. The preparation of fluorine was finally accomplished by the French chemist Moissan by the electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid. Perfectly dry hydrofluoric acid (HF) was condensed to a liquid and placed in a U-shaped tube made of platinum (or copper), which was furnished with electrodes and delivery tubes, as shown in Fig. 52. This liquid is not an electrolyte, but becomes such when potassium fluoride is dissolved in it. When this solution was electrolyzed hydrogen was set free at the cathode and fluorine at the anode.
Properties. Fluorine is a gas of slightly yellowish color, and can be condensed to a liquid boiling at -187° under atmospheric pressure. It solidifies at -223°. It is extremely active chemically, being the most active of all the elements at ordinary temperatures.
It combines with all the common elements save oxygen, very often with incandescence and the liberation of much heat. It has a strong affinity for hydrogen and is able to withdraw it from its compounds with other elements. Because of its great activity it is extremely poisonous. Fluorine does not form any oxides, neither does it form any oxygen acids, in which respects it differs from the other members of the family.
Hydrofluoric acid (HF). Hydrofluoric acid is readily obtained from fluorspar by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid. The equation is
In its physical properties it resembles the binary acids of the other elements of this family, being, however, more easily condensed to a liquid. The anhydrous acid boils at 19° and can therefore be prepared at ordinary pressures. It is soluble in all proportions in water, and a concentrated solution—about 50%—is prepared for the market. Its fumes are exceedingly irritating to the respiratory organs, and several chemists have lost their lives by accidentally breathing them.
Famous for his work with the electric furnace at high temperatures; prepared artificial diamonds, together with many new binary compounds such as carbides, silicides, borides, and nitrides; isolated fluorine and studied its properties and its compounds very thoroughly
Chemical properties. Hydrofluoric acid, like other strong acids, readily acts on bases and metallic oxides and forms the corresponding fluorides. It also dissolves certain metals such as silver and copper. It acts very vigorously upon organic matter, a single drop of the concentrated acid making a sore on the skin which is very painful and slow in healing. Its most characteristic property is its action upon silicon dioxide (SiO2), with which it forms water and the gas silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4), as shown in the equation
Glass consists of certain compounds of silicon, which are likewise acted on by the acid so that it cannot be kept in glass bottles. It is preserved in flasks made of wax or gutta-percha.
Etching. Advantage is taken of this reaction in etching designs upon glass. The glass vessel is painted over with a protective paint upon which the acid will not act, the parts which it is desired to make opaque being left unprotected. A mixture of fluorspar and sulphuric acid is then painted over the vessel and after a few minutes the vessel is washed clean. Wherever the hydrofluoric acid comes in contact with the glass it acts upon it, destroying its luster and making it opaque, so that the exposed design will be etched upon the clear glass. Frosted glass globes are often made in this way.
The etching may also be effected by covering the glass with a thin layer of paraffin, cutting the design through the wax and then exposing the glass to the fumes of the acid.
Salts of hydrofluoric acid,—fluorides. A number of the fluorides are known, but only one of them, calcium fluoride (CaF2), is of importance. This is the well-known mineral fluorspar.
CHLORINEHistorical. While studying the action of hydrochloric acid upon the mineral pyrolusite, in 1774, Scheele obtained a yellowish, gaseous substance to which he gave a name in keeping with the phlogiston theory then current. Later it was supposed to be a compound containing oxygen. In 1810, however, the English chemist Sir Humphry Davy proved it to be an element and named it chlorine.
Occurrence. Chlorine does not occur free in nature, but its compounds are widely distributed. For the most part it occurs in combination with the metals in the form of chlorides, those of sodium, potassium, and magnesium being most abundant. Nearly all salt water contains these substances, particularly sodium chloride, and very large salt beds consisting of chlorides are found in many parts of the world.
Preparation. Two general methods of preparing chlorine may be mentioned, namely, the laboratory method and the electrolytic method.
1. Laboratory method. In the laboratory chlorine is made by warming the mineral pyrolusite (manganese dioxide, MnO2) with concentrated hydrochloric acid. The first reaction, which seems to be similar to the action of acids upon oxides in general, is expressed in the equation
The manganese compound so formed is very unstable, however, and breaks clown according to the equation
Instead of using hydrochloric acid in the preparation of chlorine it will serve just as well to use a mixture of sodium chloride and sulphuric acid, since these two react to form hydrochloric acid. The following equations will then express the changes:
Combining these equations, the following equation expressing the complete reaction is obtained:
Since the hydrochloric acid liberated in the third equation is free to act upon manganese dioxide, it will be seen that all of the chlorine originally present in the sodium chloride is set free.
The manganese dioxide and the hydrochloric acid are brought together in a flask, as represented in Fig. 53, and a gentle heat is applied. The rate of evolution of the gas is regulated by the amount of heat applied, and the gas is collected by displacement of air. As the equations show, only half of the chlorine present in the hydrochloric acid is liberated.
2. Electrolytic method. Under the discussion of electrolysis (p. 102) it was shown that when a solution of sodium chloride is electrolyzed chlorine is evolved at the anode, while the sodium set free at the cathode reacts with the water to form hydrogen, which is evolved, and sodium hydroxide, which remains in solution. A great deal of the chlorine required in the chemical industries is now made in this way in connection with the manufacture of sodium hydroxide.
Physical properties. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, which has a peculiar suffocating odor and produces a very violent effect upon the throat and lungs. Even when inhaled in small quantities it often produces all the symptoms of a hard cold, and in larger quantities may have serious and even fatal action. It is quite heavy (density = 2.45) and can therefore be collected by displacement of air. One volume of water under ordinary conditions dissolves about three volumes of chlorine. The gas is readily liquefied, a pressure of six atmospheres serving to liquefy it at 0°. It forms a yellowish liquid which solidifies at -102°.
Chemical properties. At ordinary temperatures chlorine is far more active chemically than any of the elements we have so far considered, with the exception of fluorine; indeed, it is one of the most active of all elements.
1. Action on metals. A great many metals combine directly with chlorine, especially when hot. A strip of copper foil heated in a burner flame and then dropped into chlorine burns with incandescence. Sodium burns brilliantly when heated strongly in slightly moist chlorine. Gold and silver are quickly tarnished by the gas.
2. Action on non-metals. Chlorine has likewise a strong affinity for many of the non-metals. Thus phosphorus burns in a current of the gas, while antimony and arsenic in the form of a fine powder at once burst into flame when dropped into jars of the gas. The products formed in all cases where chlorine combines with another element are called chlorides.
3. Action on hydrogen. Chlorine has a strong affinity for hydrogen, uniting with it to form hydrochloric acid. A jet of hydrogen burning in the air continues to burn when introduced into a jar of chlorine, giving a somewhat luminous flame.
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