An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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When the water containing the bromine is heated, the liberated bromine distills over into the receiver.
Physical properties. Bromine is a dark red liquid about three times as heavy as water. Its vapor has a very offensive odor and is most irritating to the eyes and throat. The liquid boils at 59° and solidifies at -7°; but even at ordinary temperatures it evaporates rapidly, forming a reddish-brown gas very similar to nitrogen peroxide in appearance. Bromine is somewhat soluble in water, 100 volumes of water under ordinary conditions dissolving 1 volume of the liquid. It is readily soluble in carbon disulphide, forming a yellow solution.
Chemical properties and uses. In chemical action bromine is very similar to chlorine. It combines directly with many of the same elements with which chlorine unites, but with less energy. It combines with hydrogen and takes away the latter element from some of its compounds, but not so readily as does chlorine. Its bleaching properties are also less marked.
Bromine finds many uses in the manufacture of organic drugs and dyestuffs and in the preparation of bromides.
Hydrobromic acid (HBr). When sulphuric acid acts upon a bromide hydrobromic acid is set free:
At the same time some bromine is set free, as may be seen from the red fumes which appear, and from the odor. The explanation of this is found in the fact that hydrobromic acid is much less stable than hydrochloric acid, and is therefore more easily oxidized. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a good oxidizing agent, and oxidizes a part of the hydrobromic acid, liberating bromine:
Preparation of pure hydrobromic acid. A convenient way to make pure hydrobromic acid is by the action of bromine upon moist red phosphorus. This can be done with the apparatus shown in Fig. 56. Bromine is put into the dropping funnel A, and red phosphorus, together with enough water to cover it, is placed in the flask B. By means of the stopcock the bromine is allowed to flow drop by drop into the flask, the reaction taking place without the application of heat. The equations are
The U-tube C contains glass beads which have been moistened with water and rubbed in red phosphorus. Any bromine escaping action in the flask acts upon the phosphorus in the U-tube. The hydrobromic acid is collected in the same way as hydrochloric acid.
Properties. Hydrobromic acid very strikingly resembles hydrochloric acid in physical and chemical properties. It is a colorless, strongly fuming gas, heavier than hydrochloric acid and, like it, is very soluble in water. Under standard conditions 1 volume of water dissolves 610 volumes of the gas. Chemically, the chief point in which it differs from hydrochloric acid is in the fact that it is much more easily oxidized, so that bromine is more readily set free from it than chlorine is from hydrochloric acid.
Salts of hydrobromic acid,—bromides. The bromides are very similar to the chlorides in their properties. Chlorine acts upon both bromides and free hydrobromic acid, liberating bromine from them:
Silver bromide is extensively used in photography, and the bromides of sodium and potassium are used as drugs.
Oxygen compounds. No oxides of bromine are surely known, and bromine does not form so many oxygen acids as chlorine does. Salts of hypobromous acid (HBrO) and bromic acid (HBrO3) are known.
IODINEHistorical. Iodine was discovered in 1812 by Courtois in the ashes of certain sea plants. Its presence was revealed by its beautiful violet vapor, and this suggested the name iodine (from the Greek for violet appearance).
Occurrence. In the combined state iodine occurs in very small quantities in sea water, from which it is absorbed by certain sea plants, so that it is found in their ashes. It occurs along with bromine in salt springs and beds, and is also found in Chili saltpeter.
Preparation. Iodine may be prepared in a number of ways, the principal methods being the following:
1. Laboratory method. Iodine can readily be prepared in the laboratory from an iodide by the method used in preparing bromine, except that sodium iodide is substituted for sodium bromide. It can also be made by passing chlorine into a solution of an iodide.
2. Commercial method. Commercially iodine was formerly prepared from seaweed (kelp), but is now obtained almost entirely from the deposits of Chili saltpeter. The crude saltpeter is dissolved in water and the solution evaporated until the saltpeter crystallizes. The remaining liquors, known as the "mother liquors," contain sodium iodate (NaIO3), in which form the iodine is present in the saltpeter. The chemical reaction by which the iodine is liberated from this compound is a complicated one, depending on the fact that sulphurous acid acts upon iodic acid, setting iodine free. This reaction is shown as follows:
Purification of iodine. Iodine can be purified very conveniently in the following way. The crude iodine is placed in an evaporating dish E (Fig. 57), and the dish is set upon the sand bath S. The iodine is covered with the inverted funnel F, and the sand bath is gently heated with a Bunsen burner. As the dish becomes warm the iodine rapidly evaporates and condenses again on the cold surface of the funnel in shining crystals.
This process, in which a solid is converted into a vapor and is again condensed into a solid without passing through the liquid state, is called sublimation.
Physical properties. Iodine is a purplish-black, shining, heavy solid which crystallizes in brilliant plates. Even at ordinary temperatures it gives off a beautiful violet vapor, which increases in amount as heat is applied. It melts at 107° and boils at 175°. It is slightly soluble in water, but readily dissolves in alcohol, forming a brown solution (tincture of iodine), and in carbon disulphide, forming a violet solution. The element has a strong, unpleasant odor, though by no means as irritating as that of chlorine and bromine.
Chemical properties. Chemically iodine is quite similar to chlorine and bromine, but is still less active than bromine. It combines directly with many elements at ordinary temperatures. At elevated temperatures it combines with hydrogen, but the reaction is reversible and the compound formed is quite easily decomposed. Both chlorine and bromine displace it from its salts:
When even minute traces of iodine are added to thin starch paste a very intense blue color develops, and this reaction forms a delicate test for iodine. Iodine is extensively used in medicine, especially in the form of a tincture. It is also largely used in the preparation of dyes and organic drugs, iodoform, a substance used as an antiseptic, has the formula CHI3.
Hydriodic acid (HI). This acid cannot be prepared in pure condition by the action of sulphuric acid upon an iodide, since the hydriodic acid set free is oxidized by the sulphuric acid just as in the case of hydrobromic acid, but to a much greater extent. It can be prepared in exactly the same way as hydrobromic acid, iodine being substituted for bromine. It can also be prepared by passing hydrosulphuric acid into water in which iodine is suspended. The equation is
The hydriodic acid formed in this way dissolves in the water.
Properties and uses. Hydriodic acid resembles the corresponding acids of chlorine and bromine in physical properties, being a strongly fuming, colorless gas, readily soluble in water. Under standard conditions 1 volume of water dissolves about 460 volumes of the gas. It is, however, more unstable than either hydrochloric or hydrobromic acids, and on exposure to the air it gradually decomposes in accordance with the equation
Owing to the slight affinity between iodine and hydrogen the acid easily gives up its hydrogen and is therefore a strong reducing agent. This is seen in its action on sulphuric acid.
The salts of hydriodic acid, the iodides, are, in general, similar to the chlorides and bromides. Potassium iodide (KI) is the most familiar of the iodides and is largely used in medicine.
Oxygen compounds. Iodine has a much greater affinity for oxygen than has either chlorine or bromine. When heated with nitric acid it forms a stable oxide (I2O5). Salts of iodic acid (HIO3) and periodic acid (HIO4) are easily prepared, and the free acids are much more stable than the corresponding acids of the other members of this family.
GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW OF VOLUMESIn the discussion of the composition of hydrochloric acid it was stated that one volume of hydrogen combines with one volume of chlorine to form two volumes of hydrochloric acid. With bromine and iodine similar combining ratios hold good. These facts recall the simple volume relations already noted in the study of the composition of steam and ammonia. These relations may be represented graphically in the following way:
In the early part of the past century Gay-Lussac, a distinguished French chemist, studied the volume relations of many combining gases, and concluded that similar relations always hold. His observations are summed up in the following law: When two gases combine chemically there is always a simple ratio between their volumes, and between the volume of either one of them and that of the product, provided it is a gas. By a simple ratio is meant of course the ratio of small whole numbers, as 1 : 2, 2 : 3.
EXERCISES1. How do we account for the fact that liquid hydrofluoric acid is not an electrolyte?
2. Why does sulphuric acid liberate hydrofluoric acid from its salts?
3. In the preparation of chlorine, what advantages are there in treating manganese dioxide with a mixture of sodium chloride and sulphuric acid rather than with hydrochloric acid?
4. Why must chlorine water be kept in the dark?
5. What is the derivation of the word nascent?
6. What substances studied are used as bleaching agents? To what is the bleaching action due in each case?
7. What substances studied are used as disinfecting agents?
8. What is meant by the statement that hydrochloric acid is one of the strongest acids?
9. What is the meaning of the phrase aqua regia?
10. Cl2O is the anhydride of what acid?
11. A solution of hydriodic acid on standing turns brown. How is this accounted for?
12. How can bromine vapor and nitrogen peroxide be distinguished from each other?
13. Write the equations for the reaction taking place when hydriodic acid is prepared from iodine, phosphorus, and water.
14. From their behavior toward sulphuric acid, to what class of agents do hydrobromic and hydriodic acids belong?
15. Give the derivation of the names of the elements of the chlorine family.
16. Write the names and formulas for the binary acids of the group in the order of the stability of the acids.
17. What is formed when a metal dissolves in each of the following? nitric acid; dilute sulphuric acid; concentrated sulphuric acid; hydrochloric acid; aqua regia.
18. How could you distinguish between a chloride, a bromide, and an iodide?
19. What weight of sodium chloride is necessary to prepare sufficient hydrochloric acid to saturate 1 l. of water under standard conditions?
20. On decomposition 100 l. of hydrochloric acid would yield how many liters of hydrogen and chlorine respectively, the gases being
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