An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕

of the two kinds of atoms. In the simplest case one atom of the one element combines with one atom of the other. If the sulphur and the iron atoms never change their respective masses when they unite to form a molecule of iron sulphide, all iron sulphide molecules will have equal amounts of iron in them and also of sulphur. Consequently any mass made up of iron sulphide molecules will have the same fraction of iron by weight as do the individual iron sulphide molecules. Iron sulphide, from whatever source, will have the same composition, which is in accordance with the law of definite composition.

3. The atomic hypothesis and the law of multiple proportion. But this simplest case may not always be the only one. Under other conditions one atom of iron might combine with two of sulphur to form a molecule of a second compound. In such a case the one atom of iron would be in combination with twice the mass of sulphur that is in the first compound, since the sulphur atoms all have equal masses. What is true for one molecule will be true for any number of them; consequently when such quantities of these two compounds are selected as are found to contain the same amount of iron, the one will contain twice as much sulphur as the other.

The combination between the atoms may of course take place in other simple ratios. For example, two atoms of one element might combine with three or with five of the other. In all such cases it is clear that the law of multiple proportion must hold true. For on selecting such numbers of the two kinds of molecules as have the same number of the one kind of atoms, the numbers of the other kind of atoms will stand in some simple ratio to each other, and their weights will therefore stand in the same simple ratio.

Testing the hypothesis. Efforts have been made to find compounds which do not conform to these laws, but all such attempts have resulted in failure. If such compounds should be found, the laws would be no longer true, and the hypothesis of Dalton would cease to possess value. When an hypothesis has been tested in every way in which experiment can test it, and is still found to be in harmony with the facts in the case, it is termed a theory. We now speak of the atomic theory rather than of the atomic hypothesis.

Value of a theory. The value of a theory is twofold. It aids in the clear understanding of the laws of nature because it gives an intelligent idea as to why these laws should be in operation.

A theory also leads to discoveries. It usually happens that in testing a theory much valuable work is done, and many new facts are discovered. Almost any theory in explaining given laws will involve a number of consequences apart from the laws it seeks to explain. Experiment will soon show whether these facts are as the theory predicts they will be. Thus Dalton's atomic theory predicted many properties of gases which experiment has since verified.

Atomic weights. It would be of great advantage in the study of chemistry if we could determine the weights of the different kinds of atoms. It is evident that this cannot be done directly. They are so small that they cannot be seen even with a most powerful microscope. It is calculated that it would take 200,000,000 hydrogen atoms placed side by side to make a row one centimeter long. No balance can weigh such minute objects. It is possible, however, to determine their relative weights,—that is, how much heavier one is than another. These relative weights of the atoms are spoken of as the atomic weights of the elements.

If elements were able to combine in only one way,—one atom of one with one atom of another,—the problem of determining the atomic weights would be very simple. We should merely have to take some one convenient element as a standard, and find by experiment how much of each other element would combine with a fixed weight of it. The ratios thus found would be the same ratios as those between the atoms of the elements, and thus we should have their relative atomic weights. The law of multiple proportion calls attention to the fact that the atoms combine in other ratios than 1: 1, and there is no direct way of telling which one, if any, of the several compounds in a given case is the one consisting of a single atom of each element.

If some way were to be found of telling how much heavier the entire molecule of a compound is than the atom chosen as a standard,—that is, of determining the molecular weights of compounds,—the problem could be solved, though its solution would not be an entirely simple matter. There are ways of determining the molecular weights of compounds, and there are other experiments which throw light directly upon the relative weights of the atoms. These methods cannot be described until the facts upon which they rest have been studied. It will be sufficient for the present to assume that these methods are trustworthy.

Standard for atomic weights. Since the atomic weights are merely relative to some one element chosen as a standard, it is evident that any one of the elements may serve as this standard and that any convenient value may be assigned to its atom. At one time oxygen was taken as this standard, with the value 100, and the atomic weights of the other elements were expressed in terms of this standard. It would seem more rational to take the element of smallest atomic weight as the standard and give it unit value; accordingly hydrogen was taken as the standard with an atomic weight of 1. Very recently, however, this unit has been replaced by oxygen, with an atomic weight of 16.

Why oxygen is chosen as the standard for atomic weights. In the determination of the atomic weight of an element it is necessary to find the weight of the element which combines with a definite weight of another element, preferably the element chosen as the standard. Since oxygen combines with the elements far more readily than does hydrogen to form definite compounds, it is far better adapted for the standard element, and has accordingly replaced hydrogen as the standard. Any definite value might be given to the weight of the oxygen atom. In assigning a value to it, however, it is convenient to choose a whole number, and as small a number as possible without making the atomic weight of any other element less than unity. For these reasons the number 16 has been chosen as the atomic weight of oxygen. This makes the atomic weight of hydrogen equal to 1.008, so that there is but little difference between taking oxygen as 16 and hydrogen as 1 for the unit.

The atomic weights of the elements are given in the Appendix.

EXERCISES

1. Two compounds were found to have the following compositions: (a) oxygen = 69.53%, nitrogen = 30.47%; (b) oxygen = 53.27%, nitrogen = 46.73%. Show that the law of multiple proportion holds in this case.

2. Two compounds were found to have the following compositions: (a) oxygen = 43.64%, phosphorus = 56.36%; (b) oxygen = 56.35%, phosphorus = 43.65%. Show that the law of multiple proportion holds in this case.

3. Why did Dalton assume that all the atoms of a given element have the same weight?

CHAPTER VI CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Formulas. Since the molecule of any chemical compound consists of a definite number of atoms, and this number never changes without destroying the identity of the compound, it is very convenient to represent the composition of a compound by indicating the composition of its molecules. This can be done very easily by using the symbols of the atoms to indicate the number and the kind of the atoms which constitute the molecule. HgO will in this way represent mercuric oxide, a molecule of which has been found to contain 1 atom each of mercury and oxygen. H2O will represent water, the molecules of which consist of 1 atom of oxygen and 2 of hydrogen, the subscript figure indicating the number of the atoms of the element whose symbol precedes it. H2SO4 will stand for sulphuric acid, the molecules of which contain 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 of sulphur, and 4 of oxygen. The combination of symbols which represents the molecule of a substance is called its formula.

Equations. When a given substance undergoes a chemical change it is possible to represent this change by the use of such symbols and formulas. In a former chapter it was shown that mercuric oxide decomposes when heated to form mercury and oxygen. This may be expressed very briefly in the form of the equation