An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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2. Quantitative analysis. The analysis just described is purely qualitative and simply shows that water contains hydrogen and oxygen. It does not prove the absence of other elements; indeed it does not prove that the hydrogen and oxygen are present in the proportion in which they are liberated by the electric current. The method may be made quantitative, however, by weighing the water decomposed and also the hydrogen and oxygen obtained in its decomposition. If the combined weights of the hydrogen and oxygen exactly equal the weight of the water decomposed, then it would be proved that the water consists of hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion in which they are liberated by the electric current. This experiment is difficult to carry out, however, so that the more accurate methods based on synthesis are used.
Methods based on synthesis. Two steps are necessary to ascertain the exact composition of water by synthesis: (1) to show by qualitative synthesis that water is formed by the union of oxygen with hydrogen; (2) to determine by quantitative synthesis in what proportion the two elements unite to form water. The fact that water is formed by the combination of oxygen with hydrogen was proved in the preceding chapter. The quantitative synthesis may be made as follows:
The combination of the two gases is brought about in a tube called a eudiometer. This is a graduated tube about 60 cm. long and 2 cm. wide, closed at one end (Fig. 20). Near the closed end two platinum wires are fused through the glass, the ends of the wires within the tube being separated by a space of 2 mm or 3 mm. The tube is entirely filled with mercury and inverted in a vessel of the same liquid. Pure hydrogen is passed into the tube until it is about one fourth filled. The volume of the gas is then read off on the scale and reduced to standard conditions. Approximately an equal volume of pure oxygen is then introduced and the volume again read off and reduced to standard conditions. This gives the total volume of the two gases. From this the volume of the oxygen introduced may be determined by subtracting from it the volume of the hydrogen. The combination of the two gases is now brought about by connecting the two platinum wires with an induction coil and passing a spark from one wire to the other. Immediately a slight explosion occurs. The mercury in the tube is at first depressed because of the expansion of the gases due to the heat generated, but at once rebounds, taking the place of the gases which have combined to form water. The volume of the water in the liquid state is so small that it may be disregarded in the calculations. In order that the temperature of the residual gas and the mercury may become uniform, the apparatus is allowed to stand for a few minutes. The volume of the gas is then read off and reduced to standard conditions, so that it may be compared with the volumes of the hydrogen and oxygen originally taken. The residual gas is then tested in order to ascertain whether it is hydrogen or oxygen, experiments having proved that it is never a mixture of the two. From the information thus obtained the composition of the water may be calculated. Thus, suppose the readings were as follows:
The 20.3 cc. of hydrogen have combined with 18.4 cc. minus 8.3 cc. (or 10.1 cc.) of oxygen; or approximately 2 volumes of hydrogen have combined with 1 of oxygen. Since oxygen is 15.88 times as heavy as hydrogen, the proportion by weight in which the two gases combine is 1 part of hydrogen to 7.94 of oxygen.
Precaution. If the two gases are introduced into the eudiometer in the exact proportions in which they combine, after the combination has taken place the liquid will rise and completely fill the tube. Under these conditions, however, the tube is very likely to be broken by the sudden upward rush of the liquid. Hence in performing the experiment care is taken to introduce an excess of one of the gases.
A more convenient form of eudiometer. A form of eudiometer (Fig. 21) different from that shown on page 43 is sometimes used to avoid the calculations necessary in reducing the volumes of the gases to the same conditions of temperature and pressure in order to make comparisons. With this apparatus it is possible to take the readings of the volumes under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, and thus compare them directly. The apparatus (Fig. 21) is filled with mercury and the gases introduced into the tube A. The experiment is carried out as in the preceding one, except that before taking the reading of the gas volumes, mercury is either added to the tube B or withdrawn from it by means of the stopcock C, until it stands at exactly the same height in both tubes. The gas inclosed in tube A is then under atmospheric pressure; and since but a few minutes are required for performing the experiment, the conditions of temperature and pressure may be regarded as constant. Hence the volumes of the hydrogen and oxygen and of the residual gas may be read off from the tube and directly compared.
Method used by Berzelius and Dumas. The method used by these investigators enables us to determine directly the proportion by weight in which the hydrogen and oxygen combine. Fig. 22 illustrates the apparatus used in making this determination. B is a glass tube containing copper oxide. C and D are glass tubes filled with calcium chloride, a substance which has great affinity for water. The tubes B and C, including their contents, are carefully weighed, and the apparatus connected as shown in the figure. A slow current of pure hydrogen is then passed through A, and that part of the tube B which contains copper oxide is carefully heated. The hydrogen combines with the oxygen present in the copper oxide to form water, which is absorbed by the calcium chloride in tube C. The calcium chloride in tube D prevents any moisture entering tube C from the air. The operation is continued until an appreciable amount of water has been formed. The tubes B and C are then weighed once more. The loss of weight in the tube B will exactly equal the weight of oxygen taken up from the copper oxide in the formation of the water. The gain in weight in the tube C will exactly equal the weight of the water formed. The difference in these weights will of course equal the weight of the hydrogen present in the water formed.
Dumas' results. The above method for the determination of the composition of water was first used by Berzelius in 1820. The work was repeated in 1843 by Dumas, the average of whose results is as follows:
According to this experiment the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in water is therefore 26.32 to 210.04, or as l to 7.98
Morley's results. The American chemist Morley has recently determined the composition of water, extreme precautions being taken to use pure materials and to eliminate all sources of error. The hydrogen and oxygen which combined, as well as the water formed, were all accurately weighed. According to Morley's results, 1 part of hydrogen by weight combines with 7.94 parts of oxygen to form water.
Comparison of results obtained. From the above discussions it is easy to see that it is by experiment alone that the composition of a compound can be determined. Different methods may lead to slightly different results. The more accurate the method chosen and the greater the skill with which the experiment is carried out, the more accurate will be the results. It is generally conceded by chemists that the results obtained by Morley in reference to the composition of water are the most accurate ones. In accordance with these results, then, water must be regarded as a compound containing hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of 1 part by weight of hydrogen to 7.94 parts by weight of oxygen.
Relation between the volume of aqueous vapor and the volumes of the hydrogen and oxygen which combine to form it. When the quantitative synthesis of water is carried out in the eudiometer as described above, the water vapor formed by the union of the hydrogen and oxygen at once condenses. The volume of the resulting liquid is so small that it may be disregarded in making the calculations. If, however, the experiment is carried out at a temperature of 100° or above, the water-vapor formed is not condensed and it thus becomes possible to compare the volume of the vapor with the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen which combined to form it. This can be accomplished by surrounding the arm A of the eudiometer (Fig. 23) with the tube B through which is passed the vapor obtained by boiling some liquid which has a boiling point above 100°. In this way it has been proved that 2 volumes of hydrogen and 1 volume of oxygen combine to form exactly 2 volumes of water vapor, the volumes all being measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. It will be noted that the relation between these volumes may be expressed by whole numbers. The significance of this very important fact will be discussed in a subsequent chapter.
Occurrence of water. Water not only covers about three fourths of the surface of the earth, and is present in the atmosphere in the form of moisture, but it is also a common constituent of the soil and rocks and of almost every form of animal and vegetable organism. The human body is nearly 70% water. This is derived not only from the water which we drink but also from the food which we eat, most of which contains a large percentage of water. Thus potatoes contain about 78% of water, milk 85%, beef over 50%, apples 84%, tomatoes 94%.
Impurities in water. Chemically pure water contains only hydrogen and oxygen. Such a water never occurs in nature, however, for being a good solvent, it takes up certain substances from the rocks and soil with which it comes in contact. When such waters are evaporated these substances are deposited in the form of a residue. Even rain water, which is the purest form occurring in nature, contains dust particles and gases dissolved from the atmosphere. The foreign matter in water is of two kinds, namely, mineral, such as common salt and limestone, and organic, that is the products of animal and vegetable life.
Mineral matter in water. The amount and nature of the mineral matter present in different waters vary greatly, depending on the character of the rocks and soil with which the waters come in contact. The more common of the substances present are common salt and compounds of calcium, magnesium, and iron. One liter of the average river
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