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to the flame of a burner placed not nearer than an arm's length from the jet. If the hydrogen is mixed with air a slight explosion occurs, but if pure it burns quietly in the tube. The operation is repeated until the gas burns quietly, when the tube is quickly brought back over the jet for an instant, whereby the escaping hydrogen is ignited by the flame in the tube.

. Fig. 13 . Fig. 13

A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is explosive. That a mixture of hydrogen and air is explosive may be shown safely as follows: A cork through which passes a short glass tube about 1 cm. in diameter is fitted air-tight into the tubule of a bell jar of 2 l. or 3 l. capacity. (A thick glass bottle with bottom removed may be used.) The tube is closed with a small rubber stopper and the bell jar filled with hydrogen, the gas being collected over water. When entirely filled with the gas the jar is removed from the water and supported by blocks of wood in order to leave the bottom of the jar open, as shown in Fig. 13. The stopper is now removed from the tube in the cork, and the hydrogen, which on account of its lightness escapes from the tube, is at once lighted. As the hydrogen escapes, the air flows in at the bottom of the jar and mixes with the remaining portion of the hydrogen, so that a mixture of the two soon forms, and a loud explosion results. The explosion is not dangerous, since the bottom of the jar is open, thus leaving room for the expansion of the hot gas.

Since air is only one fifth oxygen, the remainder being inert gases, it may readily be inferred that a mixture of hydrogen with pure oxygen would be far more explosive than a mixture of hydrogen with air. Such mixtures should not be made except in small quantities and by experienced workers.

Hydrogen does not support combustion. While hydrogen is readily combustible, it is not a supporter of combustion. In other words, substances will not burn in it. This may be shown by bringing a lighted candle supported by a stiff wire into a bottle or cylinder of the pure gas, as shown in Fig. 14. The hydrogen is ignited by the flame of the candle and burns at the mouth of the bottle, where it comes in contact with the oxygen in the air. When the candle is thrust up into the gas, its flame is extinguished on account of the absence of oxygen. If slowly withdrawn, the candle is relighted as it passes through the layer of burning hydrogen.

Fig. 14 Fig. 14

Fig. 15 Fig. 15

Reduction. On account of its great affinity for oxygen, hydrogen has the power of abstracting it from many of its compounds. Thus, if a stream of hydrogen, dried by passing through the tube B (Fig. 15), filled with calcium chloride, is conducted through the tube C containing some copper oxide, heated to a moderate temperature, the hydrogen abstracts the oxygen from the copper oxide. The change may be represented as follows:

hydrogen + {copper} {hydrogen}
{oxygen}(copper oxide) = {oxygen }(water) + copper

The water formed collects in the cold portions of the tube C near its end. In this experiment the copper oxide is said to undergo reduction. Reduction may therefore be defined as the process of withdrawing oxygen from a compound.

Relation of reduction to oxidation. At the same time that the copper oxide is reduced it is clear that the hydrogen is oxidized, for it combines with the oxygen given up by the copper oxide. The two processes are therefore very closely related, and it usually happens that when one substance is oxidized some other substance is reduced. That substance which gives up its oxygen is called an oxidizing agent, while the substance which unites with the oxygen is called a reducing agent.

The oxyhydrogen blowpipe. This is a form of apparatus used for burning hydrogen in pure oxygen. As has been previously stated, the flame produced by the combustion of hydrogen in the air is very hot. It is evident that if pure oxygen is substituted for air, the temperature reached will be much higher, since there are no inert gases to absorb the heat. The oxyhydrogen blowpipe, used to effect this combination, consists of a small tube placed within a larger one, as shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16 Fig. 16

The hydrogen, stored under pressure, generally in steel cylinders, is first passed through the outer tube and ignited at the open end of the tube. The oxygen from a similar cylinder is then conducted through the inner tube, and mixes with the hydrogen at the end of the tube. In order to produce the maximum heat, the hydrogen and oxygen must be admitted to the blowpipe in the exact proportion in which they combine, viz., 2 volumes of hydrogen to 1 of oxygen, or by weight, 1 part of hydrogen to 7.94 parts of oxygen. The intensity of the heat may be shown by bringing into the flame pieces of metal such as iron wire or zinc. These burn with great brilliancy. Even platinum, having a melting point of 1779°, may be melted by the heat of the flame.

While the oxyhydrogen flame is intensely hot, it is almost non-luminous. If directed against some infusible substance like ordinary lime (calcium oxide), the heat is so intense that the lime becomes incandescent and glows with a brilliant light. This is sometimes used as a source of light, under the name of Drummond or lime light.

Fig. 17 Fig. 17

The blast lamp. A similar form of apparatus is commonly used in the laboratory as a source of heat under the name blast lamp (Fig. 17). This differs from the oxyhydrogen blowpipe only in the size of the tubes. In place of the hydrogen and oxygen the more accessible coal gas and air are respectively used. The former is composed largely of a mixture of free hydrogen and gaseous compounds of carbon and hydrogen. While the temperature of the flame is not so high as that of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, it nevertheless suffices for most chemical operations carried out in the laboratory.

Uses of hydrogen. On account of its cost, hydrogen is but little used for commercial purposes. It is sometimes used as a material for the inflation of balloons, but usually the much cheaper coal gas is substituted for it. Even hot air is often used when the duration of ascension is very short. It has been used also as a source of heat and light in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. Where the electric current is available, however, this form of apparatus has been displaced almost entirely by the electric light and electric furnace, which are much more economical and more powerful sources of light and heat.

EXERCISES

1. Will a definite weight of iron decompose an unlimited weight of steam?

2. Why is oxygen passed through the inner tube of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe rather than the outer?

3. In Fig. 14, will the flame remain at the mouth of the tube?

4. From Fig. 15, suggest a way for determining experimentally the quantity of water formed in the reaction.

5. Distinguish clearly between the following terms: oxidation, reduction, combustion, and kindling temperature.

6. Is oxidation always accompanied by reduction?

7. What is the source of heat in the lime light? What is the exact use of lime in this instrument?

8. In Fig. 12, why is it necessary to dry the hydrogen by means of the calcium chloride in the tube X?

9. At what pressure would the weight of 1 l. of hydrogen be equal to that of oxygen under standard conditions?

10. (a) What weight of hydrogen can be obtained from 150 g. of sulphuric acid? (b) What volume would this occupy under standard conditions? (c) The density of sulphuric acid is 1.84. What volume would the 150 g. of the acid occupy?

11. How many liters of hydrogen can be obtained from 50 cc. of sulphuric acid having a density of 1.84?

12. Suppose you wish to fill five liter bottles with hydrogen, the gas to be collected over water in your laboratory, how many cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid would be required?

CHAPTER IV COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN; WATER AND HYDROGEN DIOXIDE WATER

Historical. Water was long regarded as an element. In 1781 Cavendish showed that it is formed by the union of hydrogen and oxygen. Being a believer in the phlogiston theory, however, he failed to interpret his results correctly. A few years later Lavoisier repeated Cavendish's experiments and showed that water must be regarded as a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.

General methods employed for the determination of the composition of a compound. The composition of a compound may be determined by either of two general processes these are known as analysis and synthesis.

1. Analysis is the process of decomposing a compound into its constituents and determining what these constituents are. The analysis is qualitative when it results in merely determining what elements compose the compound; it is quantitative when the exact percentage of each constituent is determined. Qualitative analysis must therefore precede quantitative analysis, for it must be known what elements, are in a compound before a method can be devised for determining exactly how much of each is present.

2. Synthesis is the process of forming a compound from its constituent parts. It is therefore the reverse of analysis. Like analysis, it may be either qualitative or quantitative.

Application of these methods to the determination of the composition of water. The determination of the composition of water is a matter of great interest not only because of the importance of the compound but also because the methods employed illustrate the general methods of analysis and synthesis.

Methods based on analysis. The methods based on analysis may be either qualitative or quantitative in character.

Fig. 18 Fig. 18

1. Qualitative analysis. As was stated in the study of oxygen, water may be separated into its component parts by means of the electric current. The form of apparatus ordinarily used for effecting this analysis is shown in Fig. 18. A platinum wire, to the end of which is attached a small piece of platinum foil (about 15 mm. by 25 mm.), is fused through each of the tubes B and D, as shown in the figure. The stopcocks at the ends of these tubes are opened and water, to which has been added about one tenth of its volume of sulphuric acid, is poured into the tube A until the side tubes B and D are completely filled. The stopcocks are then closed. The platinum wires extending into the tubes B and D are now connected with the wires leading from two or three dichromate cells joined in series. The pieces of platinum foil within the tubes thus become the electrodes, and the current flows from one to the other through the acidulated water. As soon as the current passes, bubbles of gas rise from each of the electrodes and collect in the upper part of the tubes. The gas rising from the negative electrode is found to be hydrogen, while that from the positive electrode is oxygen. It will be seen that the volume of the hydrogen is approximately double that of the oxygen. Oxygen is more soluble in water than hydrogen, and a very little of it is also lost by being converted into ozone and other substances. It has been found that when the necessary corrections are made for the error due to these facts, the volume of the hydrogen is exactly double that of the oxygen.

Fig. 19 illustrates a simpler form of apparatus, which may be used

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