An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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3. The molecular weight of ammonia is 17.06; of sulphur dioxide is 64.06; of chlorine is 70.9. From the molecular weight calculate the weight of 1 l. of each of these gases. Compare your results with the table on the back cover of the book.
4. From the molecular weight of the same gases calculate the density of each, referred to air as a standard.
5. A mixture of 50 cc. of carbon monoxide and 50 cc. of oxygen was exploded in a eudiometer, (a) What gases remained in the tube after the explosion? (b) What was the volume of each?
6. In what proportion must acetylene and oxygen be mixed to produce the greatest explosion?
7. Solve Problem 18, Chapter XVII, without using molecular weights. Compare your results.
8. Solve Problem 10, Chapter XVIII, without using molecular weights. Compare your results.
9. The specific heat of aluminium is 0.214; of lead is 0.031. From these specific heats calculate the atomic weights of each of the elements.
CHAPTER XX THE PHOSPHORUS FAMILYThe family. The elements constituting this family belong in the same group with nitrogen and therefore resemble it in a general way. They exhibit a regular gradation of physical properties, as is shown in the above table. The same general gradation is also found in their chemical properties, phosphorus being an acid-forming element, while bismuth is essentially a metal. The other two elements are intermediate in properties.
Compounds. In general the elements of the family form compounds having similar composition, as is shown in the following table:
In the case of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony the oxides are acid anhydrides. Salts of at least four acids of each of these three elements are known, the free acid in some instances being unstable. The relation of these acids to the corresponding anhydrides may be illustrated as follows, phosphorus being taken as an example:
PHOSPHORUS
History. The element phosphorus was discovered by the alchemist Brand, of Hamburg, in 1669, while searching for the philosopher's stone. Owing to its peculiar properties and the secrecy which was maintained about its preparation, it remained a very rare and costly substance until the demand for it in the manufacture of matches brought about its production on a large scale.
Occurrence. Owing to its great chemical activity phosphorus never occurs free in nature. In the form of phosphates it is very abundant and widely distributed. Phosphorite and sombrerite are mineral forms of calcium phosphate, while apatite consists of calcium phosphate together with calcium fluoride or chloride. These minerals form very large deposits and are extensively mined for use as fertilizers. Calcium phosphate is a constituent of all fertile soil, having been supplied to the soil by the disintegration of rocks containing it. It is the chief mineral constituent of bones of animals, and bone ash is therefore nearly pure calcium phosphate.
Preparation. Phosphorus is now manufactured from bone ash or a pure mineral phosphate by heating the phosphate with sand and carbon in an electric furnace. The materials are fed in at M (Fig. 70) by the feed screw F. The phosphorus vapor escapes at P and is condensed under water, while the calcium silicate is tapped off as a liquid at S. The phosphorus obtained in this way is quite impure, and is purified by distillation.
Explanation of the reaction. To understand the reaction which occurs, it must be remembered that a volatile acid anhydride is expelled from its salts when heated with an anhydride which is not volatile. Thus, when sodium carbonate and silicon dioxide are heated together the following reaction takes place:
Na2CO3 + SiO2 = Na2SiO3 + CO2.
Silicon dioxide is a less volatile anhydride than phosphoric anhydride (P2O5), and when strongly heated with a phosphate the phosphoric anhydride is driven out, thus:
Ca3(PO4)2 + 3SiO2 = 3CaSiO3 + P2O5.
If carbon is added before the heat is applied, the P2O5 is reduced to phosphorus at the same time, according to the equation
P2O5 + 5C = 2P + 5CO.
Physical properties. The purified phosphorus is a pale yellowish, translucent, waxy solid which melts at 43.3° and boils at 269°. It can therefore be cast into any convenient form under warm water, and is usually sold in the market in the form of sticks. It is quite soft and can be easily cut with a knife, but this must always be done while the element is covered with water, since it is extremely inflammable, and the friction of the knife blade is almost sure to set it on fire if cut in the air. It is not soluble in water, but is freely soluble in some other liquids, notably in carbon disulphide. Its density is 1.8.
Chemical properties. Exposed to the air phosphorus slowly combines with oxygen, and in so doing emits a pale light, or phosphorescence, which can be seen only in a dark place. The heat of the room may easily raise the temperature to the kindling point of phosphorus, when it burns with a sputtering flame, giving off dense fumes of oxide of phosphorus. It burns with dazzling brilliancy in oxygen, and combines directly with many other elements, especially with sulphur and the halogens. On account of its great affinity for oxygen it is always preserved under water.
Phosphorus is very poisonous, from 0.2 to 0.3 gram being a fatal dose. Ground up with flour and water or similar substances, it is often used as a poison for rats and other vermin.
Precaution. The heat of the body is sufficient to raise phosphorus above its kindling temperature, and for this reason it should always be handled with forceps and never with the bare fingers. Burns occasioned by it are very painful and slow in healing.
Red phosphorus. On standing, yellow phosphorus gradually undergoes a remarkable change, being converted into a dark red powder which has a density of 2.1. It no longer takes fire easily, neither does it dissolve in carbon disulphide. It is not poisonous and, in fact, seems to be an entirely different substance. The velocity of this change increases with rise in temperature, and the red phosphorus is therefore prepared by heating the yellow just below the boiling point (250°-300°). When distilled and quickly condensed the red form changes back to the yellow. This is in accordance with the general rule that when a substance capable of existing in several allotropic forms is condensed from a gas or crystallized from the liquid state, the more unstable variety forms first, and this then passes into the more stable forms.
Matches. The chief use of phosphorus is in the manufacture of matches. Common matches are made by first dipping the match sticks into some inflammable substance, such as melted paraffin, and afterward into a paste consisting of (1) phosphorus, (2) some oxidizing substance, such as manganese dioxide or potassium chlorate, and (3) a binding material, usually some kind of glue. On friction the phosphorus is ignited, the combustion being sustained by the oxidizing agent and communicated to the wood by the burning paraffin. In sulphur matches the paraffin is replaced by sulphur.
In safety matches red phosphorus, an oxidizing agent, and some gritty material such as emery is placed on the side of the box, while the match tip is provided as before with an oxidizing agent and an easily oxidized substance, usually antimony sulphide. The match cannot be ignited easily by friction, save on the prepared surface.
Compounds of phosphorus with hydrogen. Phosphorus forms several compounds with hydrogen, the best known of which is phosphine (PH3) analogous to ammonia (NH3).
Preparation of phosphine. Phosphine is usually made by heating phosphorus with a strong solution of potassium hydroxide, the reaction being a complicated one.
The experiment can be conveniently made in the apparatus shown in Fig. 71. A strong solution of potassium hydroxide together with several small bits of phosphorus are placed in the flask A, and a current of coal gas is passed into the flask through the tube B until all the air has been displaced. The gas is then turned off and the flask is heated. Phosphine is formed in small quantities and escapes through the delivery tube, the exit of which is just covered by the water in the vessel C. Each bubble of the gas as it escapes into the air takes fire, and the product of combustion (P2O5) forms beautiful small rings, which float unbroken for a considerable time in quiet air. The pure phosphine does not take fire spontaneously. When prepared as directed above, impurities are present which impart this property.
Properties. Phosphine is a gas of unpleasant odor and is exceedingly poisonous. Like ammonia it forms salts with the halogen acids. Thus we have phosphonium chloride (PH4Cl) analogous to ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). The phosphonium salts are of but little importance.
Oxides of phosphorus. Phosphorus forms two well-known oxides,—the trioxide (P2O3) and the pentoxide (P2O5), sometimes called phosphoric anhydride. When phosphorus burns in an insufficient supply of air the product is partially the trioxide; in oxygen or an excess of air the pentoxide is formed. The pentoxide is much the better known of the two. It is a snow-white, voluminous powder whose most marked property is its great attraction for water. It has no chemical action upon most gases, so that they can be very thoroughly dried by allowing them to pass through properly arranged vessels containing phosphorus pentoxide.
Acids of phosphorus. The important acids of phosphorus are the following:
These may be regarded as combinations of the oxides of phosphorus with water according to the equations given in the discussion of the characteristics of the family.
1. Phosphorous acid (H3PO3). Neither the acid nor its salts are at all frequently met with in chemical operations. It can be easily obtained, however, in the form of transparent crystals when phosphorus trichloride is treated with water and the resulting solution is evaporated:
Its most interesting property is its tendency to take up oxygen and pass over into phosphoric acid.
2. Orthophosphoric acid (phosphoric acid) (H3PO4). This acid can be obtained by dissolving phosphorus pentoxide in boiling water, as represented in the equation
It is usually made by treating calcium phosphate with concentrated sulphuric acid. The calcium sulphate produced in the reaction is nearly insoluble, and can be filtered off, leaving the phosphoric acid in solution. Very pure acid is made by oxidizing phosphorus with nitric acid. It forms large colorless crystals which are exceedingly soluble in water. Being a tribasic acid, it forms acid as well as normal salts. Thus the following compounds of sodium are known:
These salts are sometimes called respectively primary, secondary, and tertiary phosphates. They may be prepared by bringing together phosphoric acid and appropriate quantities of sodium hydroxide. Phosphoric acid also forms mixed salts, that is, salts containing two different metals. The most familiar compound of this kind is microcosmic salt, which has the formula Na(NH4)HPO4.
Orthophosphates. The orthophosphates form an important class of salts. The normal salts are nearly all insoluble and many of them occur in nature. The secondary phosphates
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