An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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Silicon dioxide (silica) (SiO2). This substance is found in a great variety of forms in nature, both in the amorphous and in the crystalline condition. In the form of quartz it is found in beautifully formed six-sided prisms, sometimes of great size. When pure it is perfectly transparent and colorless. Some colored varieties are given special names, as amethyst (violet), rose quartz (pale pink), smoky or milky quartz (colored and opaque). Other varieties of silicon dioxide, some of which also contain water, are chalcedony, onyx, jasper, opal, agate, and flint. Sand and sandstone are largely silicon dioxide.
Properties. As obtained by chemical processes silicon dioxide is an amorphous white powder. In the crystallized state it is very hard and has a density of 2.6. It is insoluble in water and in most chemical reagents, and requires the hottest oxyhydrogen flame for fusion. Acids, excepting hydrofluoric acid, have little action on it, and it requires the most energetic reducing agents to deprive it of oxygen. It is the anhydride of an acid, and consequently it dissolves in fused alkalis to form silicates. Being nonvolatile, it will drive out most other anhydrides when heated to a high temperature with their salts, especially when the silicates so formed are fusible. The following equations illustrate this property:
Silicic acids. Silicon forms two simple acids, orthosilicic acid (H4SiO4) and metasilicic acid (H2SiO3). Orthosilicic acid is formed as a jelly-like mass when orthosilicates are treated with strong acids such as hydrochloric. On attempting to dry this acid it loses water, passing into metasilicic or common silicic acid:
Metasilicic acid when heated breaks up into silica and water, thus:
Salts of silicic acids,—silicates. A number of salts of the orthosilicic and metasilicic acids occur in nature. Thus mica (KAlSiO4) is a salt of orthosilicic acid.
Polysilicic acids. Silicon has the power to form a great many complex acids which may be regarded as derived from the union of several molecules of the orthosilicic acid, with the loss of water. Thus we have
These acids cannot be prepared in the pure state, but their salts form many of the crystalline rocks in nature. Feldspar, for example, has the formula KAlSi3O8, and is a mixed salt of the acid H4Si3O8, whose formation is represented in the equation above. Kaolin has the formula Al2Si2O7·2H2O. Many other examples will be met in the study of the metals.
Glass. When sodium and calcium silicates, together with silicon dioxide, are heated to a very high temperature, the mixture slowly fuses to a transparent liquid, which on cooling passes into the solid called glass. Instead of starting with sodium and calcium silicates it is more convenient and economical to heat sodium carbonate (or sulphate) and lime with an excess of clean sand, the silicates being formed during the heating:
The mixture is heated below the fusing point for some time, so that the escaping carbon dioxide may not spatter the hot liquid; the heat is then increased and the mixture kept in a state of fusion until all gases formed in the reaction have escaped.
Molding and blowing of glass. The way in which the melted mixture is handled in the glass factory depends upon the character of the article to be made. Many articles, such as bottles, are made by blowing the plastic glass into hollow molds of the desired shape. The mold is first opened, as shown in Fig. 74. A lump of plastic glass A on the hollow rod B is lowered into the mold, which is then closed by the handles C. By blowing into the tube the glass is blown into the shape of the mold. The mold is then opened and the bottle lifted out. The neck of the bottle must be cut off at the proper place and the sharp edges rounded off in a flame.
Other objects, such as lamp chimneys, are made by getting a lump of plastic glass on the end of a hollow iron rod and blowing it into the desired shape without the help of a mold, great skill being required in the manipulation of the glass. Window glass is made by blowing large hollow cylinders about 6 ft. long and 1-1/2 ft. in diameter. These are cut longitudinally, and are then placed in an oven and heated until they soften, when they are flattened out into plates (Fig. 75). Plate glass is cast into flat slabs, which are then ground and polished to perfectly plane surfaces.
Varieties of glass. The ingredients mentioned above make a soft, easily fusible glass. If potassium carbonate is substituted for the sodium carbonate, the glass is much harder and less easily fused; increasing the amount of sand has somewhat the same effect. Potassium glass is largely used in making chemical glassware, since it resists the action of reagents better than the softer sodium glass. If lead oxide is substituted for the whole or a part of the lime, the glass is very soft, but has a high index of refraction and is valuable for making optical instruments and artificial jewels.
Coloring of glass. Various substances fused along with the glass mixture give characteristic colors. The amber color of common bottles is due to iron compounds in the glass; in other cases iron colors the glass green. Cobalt compounds color it deep blue; those of manganese give it an amethyst tint and uranium compounds impart a peculiar yellowish green color. Since iron is nearly always present in the ingredients, glass is usually slightly yellow. This color can be removed by adding the proper amount of manganese dioxide, for the amethyst color of manganese and the yellow of iron together produce white light.
Nature of glass. Glass is not a definite chemical compound and its composition varies between wide limits. Fused glass is really a solution of various silicates, such as those of calcium and lead, in fused sodium or potassium silicate. A certain amount of silicon dioxide is also present. This solution is then allowed to solidify under such conditions of cooling that the dissolved substances do not separate from the solvent. The compounds which are used to color the glass are sometimes converted into silicates, which then dissolve in the glass, giving it a uniform color. In other cases, as in the milky glasses which resemble porcelain in appearance, the color or opaqueness is due to the finely divided color material evenly distributed throughout the glass, but not dissolved in it. Milky glass is made by mixing calcium fluoride, tin oxide, or some other insoluble substance in the melted glass. Copper or gold in metallic form scattered through glass gives it shades of red.
TITANIUMTitanium is a very widely distributed element in nature, being found in almost all soils, in many rocks, and even in plant and animal tissues. It is not very abundant in any one locality, and it possesses little commercial value save in connection with the iron industry. Its most common ore is rutile (TiO2), which resembles silica in many respects.
In both physical and chemical properties titanium resembles silicon, though it is somewhat more metallic in character. This resemblance is most marked in the acids of titanium. It not only forms metatitanic and orthotitanic acids but a great variety of polytitanic acids as well.
BORONOccurrence. Boron is never found free in nature. It occurs as boric acid (H3BO3), and in salts of polyboric acids, which usually have very complicated formulas.
Preparation and properties. Boron can be prepared from its oxide by reduction with magnesium, exactly as in the case of silicon. It resembles silicon very strikingly in its properties. It occurs in several allotropic forms, is very hard when crystallized, and is rather inactive toward reagents. It forms a hydride, BH3, and combines directly with the elements of the chlorine family. Boron fluoride (BF3) is very similar to silicon fluoride in its mode of formation and chemical properties.
Boric oxide (B2O3). Boron forms one well-known oxide, B2O3, called boric anhydride. It is formed as a glassy mass by heating boric acid to a high temperature. It absorbs water very readily, uniting with it to form boric acid again:
In this respect it differs from silicon dioxide, which will not combine directly with water.
Boric acid (H3BO3). This is found in nature in considerable quantities and forms one of the chief sources of boron compounds. It is found dissolved in the water of hot springs in some localities, particularly in Italy. Being volatile with steam, the vapor which escapes from these springs has some boric acid in it. It is easily obtained from these sources by condensation and evaporation, the necessary heat being supplied by other hot springs.
Boric acid crystallizes in pearly flakes, which are greasy to the touch. In the laboratory it is easily prepared by treating a strong, hot solution of borax with sulphuric acid. Boric acid being sparingly soluble in water crystallizes out on cooling:
The substance is a mild antiseptic, and on this account is often used in medicine and as a preservative for canned foods and milk.
Metaboric and polyboric acids. When boric acid is gently heated it is converted into metaboric acid (HBO2):
On heating metaboric acid to a somewhat higher temperature tetraboric acid (H2B4O7) is formed:
Many other complex acids of boron are known.
Borax. Borax is the sodium salt of tetraboric acid, having the formula Na2B4O7·10 H2O. It is found in some arid countries, as southern California and Tibet, but is now made commercially from the mineral colemanite, which is the calcium salt of a complex boric acid. When this is treated with a solution of sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate is precipitated and borax crystallizes from the solution.
When heated borax at first swells up greatly, owing to the expulsion of the water of crystallization, and then melts to a clear glass. This glass has the property of easily dissolving many metallic oxides, and on this account borax is used as a flux in soldering, for the purpose of removing from the metallic surfaces to be soldered the film of oxide with which they are likely to be covered. These oxides often give a characteristic color to the clear borax glass, and borax beads are therefore often used in testing for the presence of metals, instead of the metaphosphoric acid bead already described.
The reason that metallic oxides dissolve in borax is that borax contains an excess of acid anhydride, as can be more easily seen if its formula is written 2NaBO2 + B2O3. The metallic oxide combines with this excess of acid anhydride, forming a mixed salt of metaboric acid.
Borax is extensively used as a constituent of enamels and glazes for both metal ware and pottery. It is also used as a flux in soldering and brazing, and in domestic ways it serves as a mild alkali, as a preservative for meats, and in a great variety of less important applications.
EXERCISES1. Account for the fact that a solution of borax in water is alkaline.
2. What weight of water of crystallization does 1 kg. of borax contain?
3. When a concentrated solution of borax acts on silver nitrate a borate of
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