An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) 📕
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The metals. The elements which remain to be considered are known collectively as the metals. They are also called the base-forming elements, since their hydroxides are bases. A metal may therefore be defined as an element whose hydroxide is a base. When a base dissolves in water the hydroxyl groups form the anions, while the metallic element forms the cations. From this standpoint a metal can be defined as an element capable of forming simple cations in solution.
The distinction between a metal and a non-metal is not a very sharp one, since the hydroxides of a number of elements act as bases under some conditions and as acids under others. We have seen that antimony is an element of this kind.
Occurrence of metals in nature. A few of the metals are found in nature in the free state. Among these are gold, platinum, and frequently copper. They are usually found combined with other elements in the form of oxides or salts of various acids. Silicates, carbonates, sulphides, and sulphates are the most abundant salts. All inorganic substances occurring in nature, whether they contain a metal or not, are called minerals. Those minerals from which a useful substance can be extracted are called ores of the substance. These two terms are most frequently used in connection with the metals.
Extraction of metals,—metallurgy. The process of extracting a metal from its ores is called the metallurgy of the metal. The metallurgy of each metal presents peculiarities of its own, but there are several methods of general application which are very frequently employed.
1. Reduction of an oxide with carbon. Many of the metals occur in nature in the form of oxides. When these oxides are heated to a high temperature with carbon the oxygen combines with it and the metal is set free. Iron, for example, occurs largely in the form of the oxide Fe2O3. When this is heated with carbon the reaction expressed in the following equation takes place:
Many ores other than oxides may be changed into oxides which can then be reduced by carbon. The conversion of such ores into oxides is generally accomplished by heating, and this process is called roasting. Many carbonates and hydroxides decompose directly into the oxide on heating. Sulphides, on the other hand, must be heated in a current of air, the oxygen of the air entering into the reaction. The following equations will serve to illustrate these changes in the case of the ores of iron:
2. Reduction of an oxide with aluminium. Not all oxides, however, can be reduced by carbon. In such cases aluminium may be used. Thus chromium may be obtained in accordance with the following equation:
This method is a comparatively new one, having been brought into use by the German chemist Goldschmidt; hence it is sometimes called the Goldschmidt method.
3. Electrolysis. In recent years increasing use is being made of the electric current in the preparation of metals. In some cases the separation of the metal from its compounds is accomplished by passing the current through a solution of a suitable salt of the metal, the metal usually being deposited upon the cathode. In other cases the current is passed through a fused salt of the metal, the chloride being best adapted to this purpose.
Electro-chemical industries. Most of the electro-chemical industries of the country are carried on where water power is abundant, since this furnishes the cheapest means for the generation of electrical energy. Niagara Falls is the most important locality in this country for such industries, and many different electro-chemical products are manufactured there. Some industries depend upon electrolytic processes, while in others the electrical energy is used merely as a source of heat in electric furnaces.
Preparation of compounds of the metals. Since the compounds of the metals are so numerous and varied in character, there are many ways of preparing them. In many cases the properties of the substance to be prepared, or the material available for its preparation, suggest a rather unusual way. There are, however, a number of general principles which are constantly applied in the preparation of the compounds of the metals, and a clear understanding of them will save much time and effort in remembering the details in any given case. The most important of these general methods for the preparation of compounds are the following:
1. By direct union of two elements. This is usually accomplished by heating the two elements together. Thus the sulphides, chlorides, and oxides of a metal can generally be obtained in this way. The following equations serve as examples of this method:
2. By the decomposition of a compound. This decomposition may be brought about either by heat alone or by the combined action of heat and a reducing agent. Thus when the nitrate of a metal is heated the oxide of the metal is usually obtained. Copper nitrate, for example, decomposes as follows:
Similarly the carbonates of the metals yield oxides, thus:
Most of the hydroxides form an oxide and water when heated:
When heated with carbon, sulphates are reduced to sulphides, thus:
3. Methods based on equilibrium in solution. In the preparation of compounds the first requisite is that the reactions chosen shall be of such a kind as will go on to completion. In the chapter on chemical equilibrium it was shown that reactions in solution may become complete in either of three ways: (1) a gas may be formed which escapes from solution; (2) an insoluble solid may be formed which precipitates; (3) two different ions may combine to form undissociated molecules. By the judicious selection of materials these principles may be applied to the preparation of a great variety of compounds, and illustrations of such methods will very frequently be found in the subsequent pages.
4. By fusion methods. It sometimes happens that substances which are insoluble in water and in acids, and which cannot therefore be brought into double decomposition in the usual way, are soluble in other liquids, and when dissolved in them can be decomposed and converted into other desired compounds. Thus barium sulphate is not soluble in water, and sulphuric acid, being less volatile than most other acids, cannot easily be driven out from this salt When brought into contact with melted sodium carbonate, however, it dissolves in it, and since barium carbonate is insoluble in melted sodium carbonate, double decomposition takes place:
On dissolving the cooled mixture in water the sodium sulphate formed in the reaction, together with any excess of sodium carbonate which may be present, dissolves. The barium carbonate can then be filtered off and converted into any desired salt by the processes already described.
5. By the action of metals on salts of other metals. When a strip of zinc is placed in a solution of a copper salt the copper is precipitated and an equivalent quantity of zinc passes into solution:
In like manner copper will precipitate silver from its salts:
It is possible to tabulate the metals in such a way that any one of them in the table will precipitate any one following it from its salts. The following is a list of some of the commoner metals arranged in this way:
Iron
Tin
Lead
Copper
Bismuth
Mercury
Silver
Gold
According to this table copper will precipitate bismuth, mercury, silver, or gold from their salts, and will in turn be precipitated by zinc, iron, tin, or lead. Advantage is taken of this principle in the purification of some of the metals, and occasionally in the preparation of metals and their compounds.
Important insoluble compounds. Since precipitates play so important a part in the reactions which substances undergo, as well as in the preparation of many chemical compounds, it is important to know what substances are insoluble. Knowing this, we can in many cases predict reactions under certain conditions, and are assisted in devising ways to prepare desired compounds. While there is no general rule which will enable one to foretell the solubility of any given compound, nevertheless a few general statements can be made which will be of much assistance.
1. Hydroxides. All hydroxides are insoluble save those of ammonium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, and strontium.
2. Nitrates. All nitrates are soluble in water.
3. Chlorides. All chlorides are soluble save silver and mercurous chlorides. (Lead chloride is but slightly soluble.)
4. Sulphates. All sulphates are soluble save those of barium, strontium, and lead. (Sulphates of silver and calcium are only moderately soluble.)
5. Sulphides. All sulphides are insoluble save those of ammonium, sodium, and potassium. The sulphides of calcium, barium, strontium, and magnesium are insoluble in water, but are changed by hydrolysis into acid sulphides which are soluble. On this account they cannot be prepared by precipitation.
6. Carbonates, phosphates, and silicates. All normal carbonates, phosphates, and silicates are insoluble save those of ammonium, sodium and potassium.
EXERCISES1. Write equations representing four different ways for preparing Cu(NO3)2.
2. Write equations representing six different ways for preparing ZnSO4.
3. Write equations for two reactions to illustrate each of the three ways in which reactions in solutions may become complete.
4. Give one or more methods for preparing each of the following compounds: CaCl2, PbCl2, BaSO4, CaCO3, (NH4)2S, Ag2S, PbO, Cu(OH)2 (for solubilities, see last paragraph of chapter). State in each case the general principle involved in the method of preparation chosen.
CHAPTER XXIII THE ALKALI METALSThe family. The metals listed in the above table constitute the even family in Group I in the periodic arrangement of the elements, and therefore form a natural family. The name alkali metals is commonly applied to the family for the reason that the hydroxides of the most familiar members of the family, namely sodium and potassium, have long been called alkalis.
1. Occurrence. While none of these metals occur free in nature, their compounds are very widely distributed, being especially abundant in sea and mineral waters, in salt beds, and in many rocks. Only sodium and potassium occur in abundance, the others being rarely found in any considerable quantity.
2. Preparation. The metals are most conveniently prepared by the electrolysis of their fused hydroxides or chlorides, though it is possible to prepare them by reducing their oxides or carbonates with carbon.
3. Properties. They are soft, light metals, having low melting points and small densities, as is indicated in the table. Their melting points vary inversely with their atomic weights, while their densities (sodium excepted) vary directly with these. The pure metals have a silvery luster but tarnish at once when exposed to the air, owing to the formation of a film of oxide upon the surface of the metal. They are therefore preserved in some liquid,
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